nfMpMlllllllllIll 


STATE -SERIES 


GJED 


€^ 


8 


1 


VAxLOUuk/vNi  1   oJ-udUi 


/ 


?«»•* 


\.. 


N' 


i 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/advancedgeographOOcalirich 


CA.LIFORNIA.   STA.TB  SBRIBS  OB  SCHOOL    TBXT-BOOKS. 


ADVANCED 


COISdF'ILED    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION 

OF    THE 

STATE    BOARD    OF    KDUCATION. 


SACRAMENTO,  CALIFORNIA. 

PRINTED    AX    THE    STATE    PRINTING    OKKICE. 


c:i3 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  iSgj, 

BY   THE   STATE    BOARD   OF    EDUCATION 

0/  the  State  of  California,  for  the  People  of  the  State  of  California. 


EDUCATIOH  DEPT, 


* "  •  *  t  •  t 


1 


PRBFACE. 


Geography  has  been  taken  from  the  list  of  memory  studies 
and  now  occupies  a  place  in  the  front  rank  of  thought  studies. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  an  intelligent  consideration  of  the 
relation  of  facts  as  causes  and  effects  is  essential  in  the  study  of 
geography.  The  most  important  facts  of  political  geography 
depend  upon  the  configuration  of  the  earth's  surface  and  upon 
climate.  In  this  book,  therefore,  physical  precedes  political 
geogfraphy;  first,  in  the  treatment  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  and, 
afterward,  in  the  lessons  upon  its  divisions. 

The  carefully  classified  questions  are  designed  not  only  to  aid 
the  pupil  in  his  search  for  facts,  but  to  help  him  to  see  how 
these  facts  depend  upon  one  another. 

The  growing  commerce  of  the  world  increases  the  importance 
of  correct  knowledge  concerning  the  relative  positions  of  countries 
and  great  trade-centers.  Pupils  should  find  out  the  direction  of 
important  cities  from  the  metropolis  of  this  State;  and  they 
should  be  able  to  trace  the  direct  routes  between  widely  separated 
points.  Since  this  work  cannot  be  done  by  the  aid  of  maps  alone, 
globe  exercises  often  accompany  map  exercises. 

In  the  Home  Geography  the  plan  of  basing  the  maps  of  country 
districts  upon  the  government  surveys  has  a  twofold  use;  it  is 
the  easiest  way  to  make  a  nearly  correct  map,  and  it  is  the  best 
way  to  learn  how  land  is  measured,  divided,  and  described  in 
our  country. 

The  maps  throughout  this  book  represent  the  physical  geog- 
raphy of  the  world  according  to  the  most  recent  discoveries  and 
conclusions;  and  political  boundaries  are  correct  to  date.  Each 
map  is  designed  to  serve  one  purpose  above  all  others;  thus  em- 
phasizing the  kind  of  knowledge  which  it  is  intended  to  convey, 
iy' There  are  so  many  considerations  of  importance  to  man,  such 
as  climate,  fertility,  commercial  facilities,  etc.,  that  depend  directly 
or  indirectly  upon  the  trend,  elevation,  and  relative  position  of 
mountain-systems,  that  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  relief 
of  the  continents. 


The  ability  to  comprehend  and  retain  the  essential  facts  of 
geography  consists,  in  a  large  measure,  in  being  able  to  form  a 
general  and  yet  definite  conception  of  the  various  portions  of 
the  earth's  surface,  "^he  questions  and  text  upon  the  continents 
have  been  prepared  with  the  object  constantly  in  view  of  helping 
the  learner  so  to  study  the  maps  as  to  aid  in  the  systematic 
development  of  such  mental  conceptions.  Especial  attention  is 
called  to  the  plan  of  map-sketching  and  sand-modeling,  briefly 
outlined  on  page  142,  as  a  necessary  aid  to  the  text  and  questions 
in  accomplishing  this  end.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  .sand- 
modeling  is  far  more  efficient  in  the  formation  of  vivid  and  clear 
conceptions  of  actual  geography  than  elaborate  map-drawing; 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  modeling-board  will  be  constantly  used 
in  connection  with  this  text-book. 

The  physical  and  relief  maps,  and  the  questions  pertaining  to 
them,  are  designed  so  to  stimulate  the  imagination  that  the 
representation  of  the  continents,  by  means  of  sand-modeling, 
shall  be  the  easiest  and  most  natural  expression  of  the  learner's 
developing  conceptions. 

/  It  has  been  deemed  better  to  treat  of  the  separate  States  of 
our  own  country  in  physical  groups  rather  than  as  isolated 
geographical  units.  Much  needless  repetition  of  facts  common 
to  several  States  is  thereby  saved;  and  it  is  believed  that  this 
plan  will  commend  itself  to  thoughtful  teachers,  because  it  will 
not  only  make  it  easier  for  the  pupil  to  learn  the  information 
conveyed,  but  also  because  the  commercial  and  industrial  data 
of  the  various  States  thus  obtained  can  be  more  certainly 
retained. 

The  general  index,  with  which  the  volume  closes,  has  been 
prepared  with  special  reference  to  its  value  as  a  guide  to  topical 
study  and  review.  A  new  feature  in  a  school  geography,  it  is 
believed  that  it  will  suggest  fresh  and  inspiring  methods  of 
studying  the  subject,  through  which  the  facts  presented  will 
be  brought  into  new  and  suggestive  relations. 


I 


W^2^i)o26 


CONTENTS 


PAGE. 

Our  Side  of  the  World 5 

General  View  of  the  Earth 6 

Local,  or  Home,  Geography 8 

Changes  in  the  Surface  of  the  Earth 1 1 

Land-Surface  of  the  Earth 14 

Water 16 

Climate  (heat,  winds,  moisture,  ocean-currents) 19 

The  Organic  World 28 

Mankind 31 

Physical  North  America 43 

Political  North  America 48 

Physical  United  States 49 

Political  United  States 54 

Northeastern  States '. 58 

North  Central  States 62 

Middle  Belt  States 64 

The  Southern  States ;  65 

Western  Plateau  States 71 

The  Pacific  Coast  States 74 

California — Physical  Description 77 

California — Natural  Resources 82 


PAOB. 

California — Political  Description 86 

Commercial  and  Industrial  United  States 89 

Dominion  of  Canada,  and  Newfoundland 92 

Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies 95 

South  America — Physical  Description loi 

South  America — Political  Description 103 

Eurasia — Physical  Description 108 

Eurasia — Political  Description no 

Western  Eurasia,  or  Europe — Physical  Description 113 

Western  Eurasia,  or  Europe — Political  Description       115 

British  Isles li5 

Southwestern  Europe 119 

The  Empire  of  Turkey 123 

Southeastern  Eurasia 125 

Japan 128 

Africa — Physical  Description 130 

Africa — Political  Description -. 133 

Oceania 135 

Commercial  Study  of  the  World 139 

Pronunciations 142 

General  Index 143 


LIST  OF   MAPS. 


PAGE. 

The  Hemispheres 6-7 

Townships  and  their  Subdivisions 8-9 

Mississippi  Drainage  Basin 16 

Ocean  Depths  and  Land  Elevations 19 

Mathematical  Zones .     21 

Thermal  Zones 22 

Showing  Barometric  Pressure 25 

Showing  Rainfall 26 

Ocean-Currents 27 

Showing  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants 29 

Locality  of  the  Races  of  Men 34 

Locality  of  the  Religions  of  Men 37 

North  America — Political 42 

North  America — Physical 43 

North  America — Relief 44 

United  States — Physical 50 

United  States — Political 52-53 

Northeastern,  North  Central,  and  Middle  Belt  States S6-57 

New  York  and  Vicinity 57 

Chicago  and  Vicinity 57 

Southern  and  Middle  Belt  States 66-67 

Western  Plateau  and  Pacific  Coast  States 70-71 

California — Drainage  Map 76 

Yosemite  Valley 79 


PAOB. 

California — Forest  Map 81 

.California — County  Map       84-85 

Commercial  and  Industrial  United  States 90-91 

Dominion  of  Canada 93 

Mexico,  Central  America,  and  West  Indies      96 

South  America — Political 98 

South  America — Physical 100 

South  America — Relief 100 

Eurasia — Relief 105 

Eurasia — Political 106-107 

Eurasia — Physical 109 

Europe 114 

British  Isles 117 

Southwestern  Europe 120 

Turkish  Empire 124 

Southeastern  Eurasia 126 

Japan 128 

Africa— Relief 129 

Africa — Physical 129 

Africa— Political 131 

Oceania — Physical 136 

Oceania — Relief 136 

Oceania — Political 137 

Routes  of  Commerce  over  the  World 140-141 


1         ^J>3      i?>''l*»»l 


,^v 


^^ 


^ 


OUR   SIDE   OF  THE  WORLD. 


1.  Viewed  from  a  Great  Distance  Over- 
head.— If  we  could  view  the  world  from  a  point 
in  space  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  miles  directly 
above  the  center  of  California,  it  would,  at  noon, 
for  a  few  days  about  the  20th  of  June,  appear 
very  nearly  as  shown  above.  Perhaps  the  coast- 
lines would  not  be  so  clearly  seen  as  in  the  picture, 
and  clouds  or  fogs  might  hide  more  of  the  surface; 
but  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  earth  would  look 
like  a  full  moon,  and  that  we  should  be  able  to 
distinguish  part  of  the  American  continent.  On  the  days  sup- 
posed, all  this  side  of  the  earth,   except  a  slender  crescent  on 


AT  NOON,  CHRISTMAS. 


the  north,  would  be  in  the  sunlight  at  noon. 
This  nearly  full  earth  of  the  long  June  days  would 
grow  less  from  day  to  day,  until  on  the  short 
days  of  Christmas  time  we  shoula,  from  our  sup- 
posed position,  see  the  earth  at  noon,  as  shown 
in  the  small  picture. 

At  midnight,  in  June,  the  northern  part  of  our 
hemisphere  would  be  seen  as  a  crescent;  and 
at  midnight,  in  December,  a  very  slender  cres- 
cent, like  the  new  moon,  would  be  visible.     Our 

side  of  the  world,  then,  is  never  entirely  in  the  sunshine,  nor  is 

it  ever  quite  all  in  the  dark. 


6 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  EARTH. 


INTRODUCTORY  EXBRCISMS. 

2.  Rotation  of  the  Earth.— Whirl  a  ball  on  a  table,  or  toss  it 
with  a  whirling  motion  until  you  see  that  there  are  two  opposite 
points  around  which  the  surface  moves.  These  points  are  called 
poles.  Imagine  a  line  running  straight  through  the  ball  from  one 
pole  to  the  other.  Such  a  line  is  called  an  axis.  The  whirling 
ball  turns,  or  rotates,  on  its  axis.  The  earth  has  a  motion  like  that 
of  the  ball,  but  it  rotates  much  more  slowly. 


3.  Lines  on  the  Surface  of  the  Earth. — Imagine  your  ball 
to  be  a  little  world.  Mark  points  on  it  to  represent  the  poles. 
Stretch  a  thread  from  one  pole  to  the  other.  It  lies  upon  a  Une 
called  a  meridian,  and  thus  marks  its  position.  Draw  several 
meridians.  Pass  a  thread  from  any 
point  on  the  ball,  directly  around  the 
center  of  it.  The  position  of  a  great 
circle  is  thus  shown.  Mark  several 
points  just  halfway  between  the  poles. 
These  points  are  on  a  great  circle, 
called  the  Equator.  Draw  the  Equator. 
Draw  several  lines  parallel  with  the 
Equator.  Such  lines  are  small  circles, 
ca.\\&A.  parallels  of  latitude.  The  me- 
ridians are  north  and  south  lines. 
The  parallels  are  east  and  west  lines. 

Meridian  Unes  on  a  map  show 
whether  a  given  place  is  east  or  west  of 
another.  Places  on  the  same  meridian 
are  said  to  be  in  the  same  longitude. 

Longitude  is  distance  measured  in 
degrees,  east  or  west,  from  a  selected 
meridian  to  the  opposite  meridian.  We 
usually  count  longitude  from  the  meridian  which  passes  through 
a  marked  point  at  Greenwich  (grJn'ij),  near  London. 

Parallel  lines  on  the  map  show  distance  north  or  south  from  the 
Equator.     Places  on  the  same  parallel  are  in  the  same  latitude. 

Latitude  is  distance  measured  in  degrees,  from  the  Equator  to 
the  poles.' 

4.  Hemispheres. — Since  we  can  see  but  half  a  ball  or  sphere 
at  a  time,  it  is  natural  to  treat  the  earth  as  made  up  of  hemispheres. 


Evidently  any  great  circle  is  the  boundary  of  two  hemispheres. 
Such  a  circle  always  limits  our  view  of  a  globe.  Let  us  first  trace 
the  great  circle  which  bounds 

5.  "Our  Hemisphere."— Beginning  on  the  120th  meridian  at 
the  bottom  of  the  map,  move  your  finger  to  the  right  and  onward 
along  the  boundary'  to  the  starting  point.  Observe  that  it  crosses, 
in  order,  South  America,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  northwestern  Africa, 
southern  Europe,  northern  Asia,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.    Valparrti'go 

in  Chile,Romein  Italy,  and  Shanghai 
in  China,  are  near  our  border,  and  are 
therefore  about  equally  distant  from 
us.  Notice  that  Siberia  is  nearer  to 
us  than  Australia,  and  that  Spain  is 
nearer  than  southern  Chile. 

6.  Eastern  and  Western  Hem- 
ispheres.—  It  is  customary  for 
geographers  to  divide  the  earth  into 
hemispheres  bounded  by  a  great 
circle  passing  through  the  poles  in 
such  a  way  as  to  separate  America 
from  the  other  large  bodies  of  land. 
The  20th  meridian  west  of  Green- 
wich and  the  i6oth  meridian  east 
form  this  circle.  Such  a  division 
gives,  as  you  see,  a  better  view  of  the 
eastern  continents  than  the  hemi- 
spheres east  and  west  of  the  meridian 
of  Greenwich,  which  show  Africa  and  Europe  cut  through  by  the 
boundary  meridian. 

7.  Land  and  Water  Hemispheres.— This  division  of  the 


earth  into  hemispheres  shows  that  nearly  all  the  land  is  on  one 
side  of  the  earth.  It  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  note  that 
England  and  Holland^whose  people  have  carried  on  niost  of  the 
far-reaching  commerce  of  the  world — are  in  the  middle  of  the  land 
hemisphere. 

8.  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres. — The  Equator  is 
the  boundary  and  the  poles  are  the  centers  of  these  views  of  the 
earth.    Think  of  the  cold  centers,  the  hot  border,  and  the  temperate 


1.  We  can  teU  where  a  place  is  by  ^ving  its  latitude  and  longitude.    For  example ; 
Lake  Tft  ho'tf  is  in  latitude  39P  north,  longitude  130°  west,  from  Greenwich.    Or,  when  ottr 


hearers  know  that  the  lake  is  in  North  America,  it  is  enough  to  say  it  is  where  the  39th 
parallel  crosses  the  isoth  meridian. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    EARTH. 


regions  between.  Observe  that  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  land  is 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Notice  how  the  meridians  and  the 
parallels  appear. 


between  two  points  on  the  Equator. 
Note  that  the  thread  lies  upon  the 
Equator.  The  shortest  distance 
between  those  points,  then,  is  meas- 
ured along  the  Equator.  Stretch 
the  same  length  of  thread  tightly 
between  two  points  on  any  parallel. 
It  does  not  lie  upon  the  parallel,  and 
that  part  of  the  parallel  which  is 
between  the  points  is  longer  than 
the  thread.  Evidently  the  shortest 
distance  between  points  on  the 
same  parallel  is  not  measured  along 
the  parallel.  The  shortest  route  to 
a  place  due  east  of  your  home  is  not 
along  an  east  and  west  line,  but 
along  a  great  circle.  A  straight 
line  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
part  or  all  of  a  great  circle.  Meridians  and  the  Equator  are 
geographical  straight  lines.  On  the  Equator,  your  course  due 
east  or  west  will  be  straight,  but  on  a  parallel  it  will  bend.    From 


9.  Map  Exercises.— Which  hemispheres  are  bounded  by 
meridian  circles  ?  What  great  circle  cuts  the  meridians  in  halves  ? 
In  what  direction  is  the  center  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  from 
its  boundary  ?  Of  the  Southern  ?  Can  you  properly  speak  of  this 
boundary  as  having  eastern  or  western  parts  ?  All  the  circles  on 
the  maps  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres  are  parallels 
of  latitude,  and  their  direction  is  exactly  east  and  west.  Move  a 
pin  eastward  around  the  North  Pole  on  the  first  parallel  shown  on 
the  map  north  of  the  Equator.  Move  it  eastward  around  the 
South  Pole  on  the  first  parallel  south  of  the  Equator.  Move  the 
pin  from  any  point  on  the  Northern  Hemisphere  around  and  around 
eastward.  Move  it  the  same  way  on  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 
Do  you  see  that  east  on  the  upper  side  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere is  toward  the  left,  while  on  the  lower  side  it  is  toward  the 
right;  and  that  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  reverse  is  true? 
Nor  does  it  matter  how  you  hold  the  map.  A  ball  or  globe  will 
help  us  to  understand  this. 

10.  Globe  Exercises.— Turn  a  globe  on  its  axis— the  North 
Pole  up — so  that  the  surface  moves  toward  the  right.  While  it  is 
rotating,  look  down  upon  the  North  Pole,  or  tip  the  globe  so  that 
only  the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  seen.  The  motion  is  now  toward 
the  right  below  and  toward  the  left  above;  or  the  reverse  of  that 
shown  by  the  hands  of  a  clock.  Set  the  globe  whirling  again,  and 
turn  it  over  so  that  you  see  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  The  motion 
seems  to  be  reversed,  because  you  reversed  the  globe.  The  earth 
rotates  toward  the  east  just  as  you  have  turned  the  globe.  The 
parallels  are  true  east  and  west  lines.     Stretch  a  thread  tightly 


all  points  between  the  poles,  your  course  due  north  or  south  will 
be  straight.  Stretch  your  thread  from  San  Francisco  to  London, 
and  note  how  it  crosses  the  meridians  and  parallels  marked  on 
the  globe.  Do  you  see  that  in  traveling  directly,  or  straight,  to 
London,  you  would  at  first  go  north  of  east,  and  that  near  the  end 
of  the  journey  you  would  go  south  of  east?  Work  in  this  way 
on  the  globe,  until  you  know  just  what  is  meant  by  east,  west, 
north,  and  south. 

Hold  the  globe  so  that  you  can  see  "  the  hemisphere  east  of  us," 
as  shown  in  the  figure.      Your  home  is  near  the  point  marked 

C,  and  the  point  on 
the  earth  opposite 
your  home  is  near  A. 
Observe  that  this  point 
(called  our  antip'odal 
poitit)  is  the  most  dis- 
tant point  on  the  earth.' 
All  the  surface  you  see 
'  is  east  of  us.  Notice 
what  countries  are  east 
of  us.  Turn  the  globe 
so  that  you  see  only 
the  hemisphere  west 
of  us. 

Is  all  of  Asia  west 
of  us  ?  Place  the  globe 
so  that  our  antipodal 


THE  HEMISPHERE   EAST  OF  US. 


1.  Obsarrs  that  all  direct,  or  straight,  lines  from  any  point  on  the  globe  lead  to  the  antipodal  point.    Such  lines  continued  return  to  the  point  of  beginning. 


8 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


point  is  in  the  center  of  the  visible  hemisphere.  You  now  see 
our  antipodal  hemisphere,  all  parts  of  which  are  farther  awaj'  than 
the  most  distant  parts  of  our  hemisphere. 

11.  Exercises  on  the  Globe  and  the  Maps. — Find  on  the 
maps  and  globe  the  lines  that  show  the  positions  of  meridians  and 
parallels.  Compare  the  lines  of  latitude  on  the  maps  with  those 
on  the  globe.  On  the  latter  they  are  parallel,  while  on  the  former 
they  are  farther  apart  at  their  ends  than  at  their  centers. 

Take  half  an  orange  peel,  and,  cutting  it  nearly  to  the  center  in 
eight  or  ten  places,  flatten  it  on  a  piece  of  paper.  This  experi- 
ment shows  you  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  flat  map  perfectly 
represent  half  a  sphere.  The  distance  across  the  map  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  represents  the  same  distance  as  the  much 
longer  line  around  the  border  from  one  pole  to  the  other.  In 
looking  at  maps  of  large  areas,  we  must  think  of  the  real  curved 
surfaces  which  they  represent.  Even  a  globe  will  deceive  us, 
unless  we  realize  that  the  countries  near  the  border  of  our  view 
are  seen  edgewise.     Compare  each  of  the  maps  with  the  side  of 


the  globe  which  represents  the  same  half  of  the  earth.  Note 
that  on  the  map  the  border  countries  are  out  of  shape  and  too 
large,  while  on  the  globe  they  seem  out  of  shape  in  a  different 
way,  and  too  small. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  are  the  poles?    What  is  an  axis? 

What  is  a  meridian?  What  is  a  great  circle?  What  is  the  Equator? 
What  are  parallels  of  latitude?  What  is  longitude?  When  are  places  said 
to  be  in  the  same  longitude?  What  is  latitude?  When  are  places  said  to 
be  in  the  same  latitude? 

What  sort  of  line  always  bounds  a  hemisphere? 

Through  what  continents  and  oceans  would  a  line  bounding  the  hemi- 
sphere of  which  we  are  the  center,  pass?  What  three  cities  near  the  border 
of  our  hemisphere  are  about  equally  distant  from  us? 

What  meridians  make  the  great  circle  that  divides  the  Eastern  from  the 
Western  Hemisphere? 

If  j-ou  wish  to  go  in  a  straight  line  to  a  point  due  east  of  you,  will  you 
travel  directly  east?  In  what  direction  will  you  travel  in  the  first  part  of 
your  journey?  In  what  direction,  the  latter  part?  Explain  this.  Describe 
our  antipodal  point  on  the  globe.     Will  it  be  found  in  any  part  of  China? 


LOCAL,   OR  HOME,   GEOGRAPHY. 


FOB  COUNTRY  SCHOOI^S. 

12.  How  Land  is  Surveyed. — Before  beginning  to  work  upon 
the  geography  of  your  home,  it  will  be  best,  if  you  live  in  the 
countr)',  to  learn  how  land  in  the  United  States  is  measured  and 
described.  The  art  of  measuring  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  called 
surveying.  Nearly  all  the  land  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains 
has  been  measured  by  government  sur\'eyors. 

The  starting  point  for  the  surveys  of  most  of  the  land  in  this 
State,  and  for  all  in  Nevada,  is  marked  by  a  monument  on  the 
summit  of  Monte  Diablo.     The  meridian  passing  through  this 


point  is  called  the  Monte  Diablo  Meridian,  and  the  parallel  is 
called  the  Monte  Diablo  Base-Line.  The  surveyors  first  estab- 
Ushed  these  two  lines,  then  lines  were  run  parallel  to  these  six 
miles  apart,  thus  dividing  the  countr>-  into  squares,  called  town- 
ships. They  next  subdi\'ided  the  townships  into  sections,  each  a 
mile  square. 

13.  How  Land  is  Described.— Land  in  the  first  north  and 
south  row  of  townships  east  of  the  principal  meridian  is  said  to 
be  in  "  Range  i  East; "  land  in  the  second  row,  in  "  Range  2  East," 
and  so  on.     The  range  numbers  are  marked  along  the  base-line' 


T.^N. 
\f(-.6-W: 


IM'o-n 


.AS. 


o'PcolleJO  ,2.2'   West  from   C^ye-erLiA/^clv 


JL  cu-bi 


te  JP-Uizilo   2^a.\re    JLin.&- 


4- 


tizS-e, 


3 


fTa/nTraTb  CISCO 


5^ 


z 


T.Z  S. 

R.ZW. 
J)tun.ville 


^ 


m 


f^3 


/ 


o 


L 


Antxoc.h- 


.Bren, 
3 


in.j 


oooL 


Exercises. — After  reading  a  description 
of   land   survej-s,   and    before    taking  up  i 

"Geography  of  the  Home-Place,"  try  the         /xx° 
following:  J^on^. 

In  what  range  is  Antioch,  Brentwood, 
Stockton,  Tracy,  Martinez?  In  what  town- 
ship is  Stockton?  Tracy?  What  places  in 
more  than  one  township? 

What  four  townships  comer  at  the  starting  point  of  surveys?  How  many 
miles  long  is  each  side  of  a  township?  How  far  is  the  northwest  comer  of 
section  one,  in  town  one  south,  range  four  east,  from  Monte  Diablo?  How 
far  is  Monte  Diablo  from  the  N.W.  comer  of  Sec.  19,  T.  5  S.,  R.  i  E.?  The 
northeastern  township  of  the  State  of  Nevada  is  T.  47  N.,  R.  70  E.  How 
far  east  of  Monte  Diablo  is  the  N.E.  corner  of  Nevada?     How  far  north? 

How  many  square  miles  in  a  township?  How  many  sections  in  a  town- 
ship?   Draw  a  township,  divide  it  into  sections,  and  number  them. 


MAP 

SHOWTNG  HOW  TOWNSHIPS 

ARE  DESIGNATED  BY 

TOWN  AND  RANGE. 


SfocT: 


S 


Xo.iTlTopa 


olrcc 


1: 


7:2/1/. 


ton. 


T 


R.6  E. 


s 

s 

4- 

J 

Z 

1 

7 

a 

9 

10 

II 

12 

la 

n 

IS 

IS 

14- 

13 

19 

20 

Zl 

zs 

S3 

24 

30 

zs 

za 

27 

26 

ZS 

31 

3Z 

33 

34- 

3S 

36 

MAP  OF  A  TOWNSHIP. 


What  is  the  length  of  one  side 
of  a  section  of  land?  There  are 
320  rods  in  one  mile;  how  many 
square  rods  in  a  section  of  land? 
how  many  acres  in  a  section? 
how  many  acres  in  the  space  bf 


a 

i 

J/.'/2  ofJVE.  'k 

c 

s.r'U 

of 

e 

/ 

°f 

S.'/e  o/J.w:f* 

^ 

A  SECTION  SUBDIVIDED. 


There  are  160  square  rods  in  an  acre; 

In  the  diagram,  "A  Section  Subdivided," 

Describe  the  space  c.    The  space  d. 

In  the  "  Map  of  a  Township,"  bound  sections  i,  6,  31,  36.     Draw  a  square, 

and  divide  it  into  nine  squares.     Write  in  the  center   square  any  possible 

section  number,  and  then  number  the  other  squares  correctly. 


LOCAL,    OR    HOME,    GEOGRAPHY. 


on  the  map.  Land  in  the  first  east  and  west  row  north  of  the 
base-Une  is  in  "Township  i  North;"  land  in  the  third  row  south 
is  in  "Township  3  South."  The  township  numbers  are  shown 
along  the  principal  meridian,  which  is  the  Monte  Diablo  meridian 
on  our  map. 

The  sections  are  numbered  as  shown  on  the  "  Map  of  a  Town- 
ship." Sections  are  often  subdivided  into  halves,  quarters,  halves 
of  quarters,  quarters  of  quarters,  etc. 

Suppose  the  diagram,  "A  Section  Subdivided,"  represents  the 
section  which  is  shaded  on  the  map,  then  the  square  marked  c 
would  be  in  the  northwest  quarter  of  section  35,  and  it  would  be 
in  the  southwest  quarter  of  that  quarter.  The  full  description  of 
it  would  be:  "The  southwest  quarter  of  the  northwest  quarter  of 
section  thirty-five,  town  three  south,  range  five  east,  Monte  Diablo 
base  and  meridian." 

This  would  usually  be  written  in  an  abbreviated  form,  thus: 
"The  S.W.  }i  of  the  N.W.  %  of  Sec.  35,  T.  3  S.,  R.  5  E.,  Monte 
Diablo  B.  and  M."  The  space  marked  /  would  be:  "The  W.  >^ 
of  the  S.E.  X  of  Sec.  35." 

14.  Surveys  in  Southern  and  Northwestern  California. — 

In  southern  California  the  surveys  are  based  upon  the  San  Bernar- 
dino Base  and  Meridian.  In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State 
the  principal  meridian  is  called  the  Hmnboldt  Meridian,  and  the 
standard  base-line  is  the  Hmnboldt  Base. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THM  HOMn-PLACB. 

15.  Mapping  Your  Home. — Survey  and  map  your  home. 
This  is  easy,  because  most  of  the  work  has  been  done  by  the 
government  surveyors  and  the  county  surveyor.  You  have  only 
to  find  the  position  of  buildings  and  other  objects;  the  position, 
size,  and  shape  of  orchards,  gardens,  swamps,  and  whatever  you 
wish  to  put  on  your  map.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  careful 
measurements.  You  can  estimate  distances  by  counting  trees, 
fence  panels,  or  by  stepping.  Measure  with  the  eye  the  course  of 
streams  and  water-partings.  First  find  out  the  surveyor's  descrip- 
tion of  the  land.  It  will  be  in  the  deed,  which,  perhaps,  your 
father  can  show  you.  Suppose  it  reads:  "The  S.  yi  of  the  N.E.  ^ 
of  Sec.  3,  T.  4  N.,  R.  7  E.,  Mt.  Diablo  B.  and  M."  Then  the  position 
of  the  land  described  would  be  shown  on  a  map,  as  here  given  in 
the  "  Map  of  Section  3."     Your  map  should  be  larger.     Rule  two 

parallel  lines  four  or  five  inches 
apart,  and  six  or  seven  inches 
long;  then  across  these  rule 
two  more  lines,  so  as  to  inclose 
a  square,  which  is  to  represent 
the  section  on  which  you  live. 
Next  mark  distinctly  the 
boundaries  of  the  home-farm; 
then  put  in  the  orchard,  garden, 
houses,  etc. 

16.  Physical  Features.* — 

Write  a  description  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  land.  Find  out  all 
you  can  about  rocks  or  layers 
of  earth,  and  make  diagrams*  like  those  given  here,  which  will 
show  what  has  been  found  out  by  digging  wells,  or  what  the  wear- 
ing work  of  a  water-course  has  revealed.  Describe  the  soil,  g^iving 
its  color,  depth,  etc. 

17.  Climate. — Tell  all  you  know  about  the  weather.  How 
much  rain?     Does  it  ever  snow  ?     How  thick  a  coat  of  ice  have 

*  diagrams:  outline  drawings  of  anything;  the  drawings  on  this  and  the  preceding  page 
are  all  diagrams. 


A- 


Jac.  J+ 


Jcc   10 


MAP  OF   SECTION   3. 


Se,o 

2 


you  seen  on  pools  of  water? 
summer? 

18.  Productions.  —  Write  down  the 
estimated  weight  of  each  kind  of  crop 
produced  on  the  farm  in  one  season,  the 
value  or  number  of  chickens  or  other 
animals  raised,  etc. 

19.  Inhabitants. — Put  down  the  facts 
about  the  nativity  and  ages  of  the  living 
members  of  your  family  who  reside  at 
your  home,  in  this  way:  Father  and 
Mother,  bom  in  Ireland;  Aunt  Mary,  bom 
in  New  York;  Brother  John,  age  22,  bom 
in  Iowa;  Jane,  age  19,  bom  in  Nevada, 
James,  age  17,  bom  in  Califomia;  Kate, 
age  14,  bom  in  California;  Henry,  age  12, 
bom  in  Cahfomia. 

Recapitulation.  —  Adults:  Men,  2; 
women,  2;  bom  in  Califomia,  none;  born 
in  other  States,  2;  born  in  Europe,  2. 
Children:  Boys,  2;  girls,  2;  bom  in  Cali- 
fomia, 3;  born  in  other  States,  i. 


When  foggy?     How  hot  in  the 


Soil. 

K- 

Yellow 

clay, 
8  ft. 

1 
1 

Sand. 

'. 

1 

Blue 
clay, 


Clay. 


STRATA  PIERCED  BY  A  WELL. 


Granite. 


SECTION  BLUE  CREEK  BLUFF. 

20.  History. — Find  out,  if  possible,  who  first  owned  the  land 
on  which  you  live;  who  first  cultivated  it,  and  what  was  raised; 
who  built  the  house;  what  old  improvements  have  disappeared, 
etc.     Give  dates  as  nearly  correct  as  possible. 

When  you  and  your  classmates  have  in  this  way  completed  your 
home  geographies,  you  are  ready  to  combine  and  condense  them 
into  a 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  SCHOOL-DTSTRICT. 

21.  Mapping  the  School-District. — Lay  off  a  square  of  seven 
inches  on  a  piece  of  unruled  paper,  and  divide  it  into  squares  of 
one  inch,  each  to  represent  a  section  of  land;  or,  if  you  have  larger 
paper,  make  the  scale  one  and  a  half  inches,  or  more,  to  the  mile. 
Let  the  central  square  represent  the  section  on  which  the  school- 
house  stands.  Ascertain  from  j'our  father  or  the  school  trustees  the 
number  of  this  section  and  write  it  in  the  square.  By  counting  from 
this  section  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  determine*  the  township 

*  physical  features:  natural  features;  in  geography,  mountains,  oceans,  lakes,  rivers,  etc 
dtttrmint:  ascertain,  find  location  of. 


10 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


R6.£. 


lines,  and  make  them  heavier  or  line  them  with  red.    For  example, 
if  the  school-house  is  on  Sec.  8,  T.  4  N.,  R.  7  E.,  there  would  be 
two  township  lines,  as  here  shown.     The  school-house  may  stand 
on  such  a  section  as  to  show  four  township  lines  on  your  map. 
Number  the  sections  (with  light-colored  ink,  if  practicable*), 

and  indicate  on  the  margins  the 
town  and  range. 

Next  trace  the  boundaries  of 
the  district.  Color  (paint,  ink,  or 
berry-juice)  may  be  used. 

Finally,  put  in  the  school-house 
and  its  grounds. 

You  are  now  ready  to  copy,  on 
this  map,  all  the  details  of  the 
home-maps  made  by  the  class,  first 
copying  your  own.  When  this 
work  is  finished,  youi  map  will 
show  all  the  homes  represented  in 
your  class. 

22.  Physical  Features.' — Read  all  that  has  been  written  by 
your  class  about  physical  features,  geology,  and  climate.  Thus 
assisted,  write  under  these  heads  for  your  district  geography. 

23.  Productions. — Copy  all  the  figures  of  your  classmates, 
showing  the  quantity  or  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  crops  or 
live-stock  raised  in  the  district,  add  all  productions  of  the  same 
kind,  and  make  a  table,  like  the  following,  of  the  result: 


1- 

26 

25 

SO 

29 

28 

21 

26 

55 

36 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

2 

1 

6 

5 

4 

3 

Z 

II 

12 

7 

B 

9 

10 

II 

« 

xt 

K 

14- 

IS 

18 

n 

16 

IS 

14 

23 

24 

IS 

so 

21 

22 

23 

26 

25 

50 

29 

28 

27 

26 

SCHOOL-DISTRICT  MAP. 


Products. 

Cwt. 

Products. 

Value. 

Wheat 

Chickens 

Eees 

$     •     . 

Oats 

Potatoes 

Butter 

Beans      

24.  Inhabitants. — Put  the  result  of  your  combined  reports 
upon  inhabitants  in  a  table  like  this: 


Adults. 

Number. 

Childrkn  (Under  21  Years). 

Number. 

Men  ......... 

Women 

Girls 

Born  in  California  .... 

Born  in  California. 

Born  in  other  States    .     .     . 

Born  in  Europe 

Born  in  Europe 

25.  Occupations. — In  a  similar  way  make  a  table  of  occupa- 
tions in  the  school-district. 

26.  History. — Write  a  brief  history  of  the  district,  using  the 
home-histories  and  other  reliable  sources  for  authority. 

MXSRCISMS  FOR  CITY  OR  VILltAGS  SCHOOI^S. 

27.  Mapping  Your  Block. — Measure  as  accurately  as  you  can 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  lot  on  which  you  live.  Often  you 
will  be  able  to  determine  the  size  of  a  block  by  counting  the 
lots.  Measure  the  width  of  the  streets  by  counting  your  steps. 
Indeed,  you  can  survey  your  block,  and  the  home-lot  very  well,  by 
counting  steps.  Make  a  map  of  the  block  on  a  scale  of  so  many 
feet  or  so  many  steps  to  an  inch.     Your  map  should  show  the 

1.  To  aid  In  making  observations  of  physical  features  to  be  described  with  your  map,  the 
following  suggestions  may  be  helpful : 

/ft  connection  with  a  Hill  or  Mountain,  observe — its  slope,  whether  gradual  or  abrupt,  and 
its  length;  height  of  hill  or  mountain;  character  of  its  top,  whether  flat  or  a  peak;  vegeta- 
tion at  top  and  along  the  sides;  blufifs;  precipices;  whether  of  a  range  and  of  what  range. 

In  connection  with  a  Valley,  observe — whether  it  is  meadow,  marsh,  swamp,  plain,  gorge, 
pass,  canon,  and  the  extent  of  each. 

In  connection  with  a  Brook  or  River,  observe — the  line  of  its  banks,  right  and  left;  character 
of  its  bed,  channel,  current,  rapids;  any  water-fall  in  it;  any  delta,  estuary,  alluvial  plain, 
or  bottom-land  made  by  it;  any  tributary  or  water-parting. 


J 


L 


OLEMA  ST. 


i    <^lh 


~]  r 


RACE  ST. 


MAP  OF  BLOCK. 


r 


bounding  streets  as  indicated  in  the  diagram.  Leave  all  except 
the  home-lot  blank,  unless  there  is  a  church  or  some  other  notable 
building. 

28.  Family  Census. — Write  out  the  family  census,*  as  directed 
in  paragraph  nineteen  (19). 

29.  History  of  the  Block.— Find  out  all  you  can  about  the 
history  of  your  block.  When  and  where  was  the  first  house 
built?     When  was  the  house  in  which  you  live  built? 

When  this  is  all  written  and  your 
map  is  made,  you  can,  with  the 
help  of  the  similar  work  of  your 
classmates,  prepare  the  neighbor- 
hood geography. 

30.  Mapping  the  Neighbor- 
hood.— If,  as  is  commonly  the  case, 
the  streets  are  straight  and  the 
blocks  rectangular*  and  of  equal 
size,  you  can  easily  lay  off  the  paper 
into  blocks,  separated  by  streets. 
Decide  how  many  blocks  long  and 
wide  your  map  must  be  to  include  all  the  homes  of  3'our  class. 
Draw  the  map  on  a  scale  as  large  as  your  paper  will  permit.  Put 
in  the  names  of  the  streets.  Copy  on  the  proper  block  your  home- 
map  ;  then,  by  exchanging  home-maps  with  your  classmates,  you 
can  put  down  all  homes  and  notable  buildings.  These  should  be 
numbered  to  correspond*  with  an  index  of  names,  unless  the  scale 
of  your  map  is  large  enough  to  admit  of  printing  the  names  on 
the  home-lots. 

31.  Physical  Features. — Write  a  description  of  the  physical 
features  of  your  part  of  town,  in  which  you  should  tell,  among 
other  things,  the  position  of  the  highest  part,  or  point,  the  lowest 
place,  the  direction  and  steepness  of  slopes,  source  of  water-supply, 
etc. 

Describe  the  climate,  as  indicated  in  paragraph  seventeen  (17). 

32.  Inhabitants. — Make  a  table  of  the  census  reports,  as  shown 
in  paragraph  twenty-four  (24). 

33.  Occupations. — Make  a  table  showing  occupations  of 
adults. 

34.  History. — Write  a  brief  history  of  your  neighborhood, 
using  the  facts  given  in  the  home-block  histories. 

qu:estions. 

What  is  surveying?  From  what  point  do  most  surveys  start  in  this  State? 
What  is  the  Monte  Diablo  meridian?  What  is  the  Monte  Diablo  base-line? 
In  what  part  of  California  is  Monte  Diablo?  In  what  county  is  it?  (See 
map  of  California.)  In  surveying  the  land  what  was  the  first  thing  done 
by  the  government  surveyor?  The  second?  The  third?  What  is  a  town- 
ship of  land?    What  is  a  section  of  land? 

What  is  meant  by  "Range  i  East?"  By  "Township  i  North?"  If  a 
farm  is  in  the  6th  north  and  south  row  of  townships  east  of  the  Monte  Diablo 
meridian,  and  in  the  loth  east  and  west  row  north  of  the  Monte  Diablo 
base-line,  how  would  you  describe  it?     How  are  sections  subdivided? 

What  is  the  starting  point  for  surveys  in  southern  California?  In  north- 
western California? 

Ascertain,  if  you  can,  what  part  the  county  surveyor  has  in  surveying  the 
land. 

In  connection  with  a  Pond  or  Lake,  observe— bed,  basin,  shore,  head,  foot,  inlet,  ouUet. 

Of  a  Plateau,  observe  whether  desert  or  fertile. 

Of  a  Volcano,  observe  crater  and  lava. 

Of  the  Coast,  observe— the  direction  and  regularity  of  the  shore-line;  the  character  of 
the  beach;  any  cape  or  promontory. 

*  practicable:  that  which  can  be  done  with  the  means  at  command. 
census:  the  numbering  of  people,  and  the  registering  of  certain  facts  concerning  them, 
as  age,  place  of  birth,  value  of  property,  etc. 

rectangular:  the  cover  of  this  geography  is  rectangular,  and  each  column  on  the  page  \» 
rectangular.  correspond:  fit ;  agree. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


U 


CHANGES  IN  THE   STJRFACE   OF  THE   EARTH.^ 


Geography  is  in  part  a  description  of  the  earth's  surface ;  but 
as  the  surface  features  of  the  earth  are  constantly  changing,  it  is 
desirable  to  consider  first  how  these  changes  are  brought  about. 

EROSION. 

35.  Observations  Near  the  School-House. — Observe  the 
ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school-house  during  and  after  a  rain- 
storm, and  see  the  streams  of  muddy  rain-water  cut  channels  for 
themselves  in  the  slopes  down  which  they  flow,  in  some  cases 
washing  out  deep  gullies  in  a  few  hours.  The  effects  produced 
upon  the  earth's  surface  by  the  little  streams  in  any  neighborhood 
resemble  closely  effects  produced  by  running  water  everywhere 
else;  for  creeks  and  rivers  differ  from  brooks  only  in  size,  and 
the  greater  work  of  rivers  is  due  only  to  their  greater  volume  of 
water. 

36.  Defining  Erosion  and  Detritus. — The  wearing  away  of 
the  surface  of  the  earth  by  falling  rain  and  running  water  is  called 
erosion;  and  the  mud,  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  resulting  from  erosion, 
and  carried  away  by  running  water,  are  called  detrVtus. 

Where  streams  flow  down  steep  slopes  their  current  is  swiftest, 
and  they  have  the  gfreatest  power  to  erode  the  surface  and  carry 
away  detritus.  Wherever  the  velocity*  of  a  stream  is  decreased 
by  the  slope  becoming  less  steep  or  by  a  bend  in  the  river,  or  by 
flowing  into  a  body  of  water,  some  of  the  detritus  settles  to  the 
bottom  and  forms  layers  of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel.  Such  deposits 
are  called  sediment.     Very  fine  sediment  is  called  silt. 

37.  Effect  on  Rock,  of  Heat,  Cold,  and  Air.— The  heat  of 
summer  and  the  frost  of  winter  are  constantly  at  work,  especially 
upon  mountain  tops,  breaking  rock-masses  into  fragments;  and  by 
the  action  of  vapor  and  other  gases  in  the  air  the  hardest  rocks — 
like  granite  even — are  caused  to  "  rot "  and  crumble  into  sand  and 
clay. 

38.  Loosened  Rock  Aids  the  Water  in  Cutting  Channels. 

The  rock-materials  thus  loosened  upon  the  mountain  tops  aid  the 
water,  which  carries  them  down  the  mountain  side,  to  cut  constantly 
deepening  and  widening  gulches*  and  canons.*  The  clearest 
mountain  brook  always  carries  some  detritus  ;  and  in  times  of  rain 
or  of  melting  snow,  great  quantities  of  mud,  sand,  cobbles,  and 
even  bowlders*  are  carried  down  the  steep  beds  of  gor'ges*  and 
canons  in  mountainous  regions. 

39.  Different  Parts  of  a  River-Course. — That  part  of  a  river 
near  its  source  is  called  the  upper  course ;  it  is  usually  in  mount- 
ainous country,  though  the  upper  course  of  the  Mississippi  River 
is  in  a  comparatively  level  region.  That  part  lying  near  its  mouth 
is  called  the  lo-wer  course;  it  is  always  in  very  low  plain  regions. 
Connecting  the  upper  and  lower  courses  is  the  middle  course — • 
usually  lying  in  hilly  country. 

40.  Erosion  and  Deposition  In  Different  Parts  of  the  River- 
Course. — In  the  upper  course  of  a  river  that  rises  in  mountains 
the  slope  is  very  steep  and  the  velocity  great.  Rapid  and  extensive 
erosion  takes  place,  and  all  the  detritus  is  carried  away ;  and  the 
channel  is  consequently  deep  and  narrow  with  steep  banks,  and 
the  bed  is  generally  in  solid  rock.     In  the  middle  course  the  slope 

1.  Before  reading  tWe  chapter  find,  on  the  proper  maps,  the  location  of  the  following: 
The  Mississippi  River;  the  Ganges;  the  Nile;  the  Great  Basin  of  Utah;  the  Coast  Range; 
STfir'ra  Neva'da  Mountains;  Rocky  Mountains;  Andes  Mountains;  Him  gl'la  ya  Mountains; 
Pyr'enees  Mountains;  the  Alps;  Appala'chiau  Mountains;  Mount  Vesuvius;  Popocat'epetl; 
St.  Hele'na. 

2.  When  overflows  ooour  in  such  a  river  the  flood-waters  are  not  able  to  return  to  the 


and  the  velocity  are  not  so  great,  and  there  is,  therefore,  much  less 
erosion.  The  channel  is  wider  and  shallower,  and  the  banks  less 
steep ;  and  the  bed  of  the  stream  consists  of  deposits  of  most  of 
the  coarser  detritus — gravel,  cobbles,  and  bowlders — while  only 
the  finer  material  is  carried  farther  on.  In  the  lower  course  the 
slope  and  velocity  are  still  less,  and  there  is  little  or  no  erosion. 
The  channel  is  very  shallow  and  often  wide,  and  the  bed  of  the 
channel  is  of  mud,  as  most  of  the  finer  sediment  is  deposited 
here.  If  possible,  observe  the  above  facts  in  some  stream  near 
your  home. 

41.  Alluvial  Plains. — In  seasons  of  melting  snow  or  heavy 
rain  around  the  upper  course  of  a  river  the  shallow  channel  in  the 
lower  course  is  often  insuflScient  to  carry  the  gpreat  volume  of  muddy 


DIAGRAM  OF  A  RIVER-CHANNEL  SUBJECT  TO  FLOODS, 

i.  b.  High-water  level,    e,  Low-water  level,    c.  c,  c.  Alluvial  deposits,    a,  a,  a.  Bed-rock. 

water  poured  into  it.  When  this  occurs  the  river  overflows  its 
banks  and  deposits  sediment  upon  the  adjacent  plain.  The 
deposits  so  made  are  called  alluvial,  or  river,  deposits;  and  the 
plain  so  built  up  is  called  an  alluvial  plain.  These  alluvial  plains 
are  regions  of  great  fertility,  as  they  have  a  sediment  soil  often 
several  hundred  feet  deep.  The  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  the  central  valley  of  California  are  plains  of  this  kind. 
Alluvial  deposits  are  generally  deepest  in  the  bed  and  along  the 
banks  of  a  river ;  and  after  a  long  time  the  channel  becomes  in 
some  cases  a  raised  trough  several  feet  higher  than  the  surface 
of  the  valley  through  which  the  river  flows.  The  lower  course 
of  the  Nile  furnishes  a  good  example  of  such  an  elevated  river- 
channel.' 


DIAGRAM  OF  A  RIVER-CHANNEL  HIGHER  THAN  THE  VALLEY  THROUGH  WHICH  IT  FLOWS. 

^,5.  Level  of  the  valley.    C.  Water  level.    /4,  ^.  Bed-rock. 

42.  Forming  a  Delta. — Where  a  river  empties  into  a  lake  or 
bay  its  velocity  is  much  retarded,*  and  it  deposits  mud  and  sand 
in  the  mouth  of  the  channel  in  such  quantities  as  to  cause  the 
water  to  overflow  its  banks  and  seek  outlet  through  several  branches 
and  mouths.  A  triangular  area  cut  by  interlacing  streams*  is  thus 
formed.  It  is  called  a  delta,  because  it  resembles  in  shape  the  Greek 
letter  delta  {A). 

43.  Exterior  and  Interior  Deltas. — If  the  velocity  of  the 
river  at  its  mouth  is  not  great  enough  to  overcome  the  force  of 
ocean  tides  which  it  meets  there,  deltas  are  formed  reaching  far 

river-channel  when  the  flood  goes  down,  and  therefore  cut  new  channels  or  outlets  to  the 

ocean, 
•  velocity:  swiftness.  gulches-caflons:  very  narrow  and  deep  valleys  caused  by  erosion, 

bowlders:  masses  of  rock  that  have  been  carried  from  their  native  bed  by  the  forces  of 

nature.  gorges:  narrow  passages  between  mountains. 

retarded:  made  slower,     interlacing  streams:  streams  apparently  crossing  one  another. 


12 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


inland.     The   delta  of  the  Ganges   is  thus  formed.     But  if  the 
velocity  of  the  river  does  overcome  the  force  of  the  tides,  a  delta 


IDEAL  DELTA. 

I.  Outlet  of  the  pond.  2.  Formation  of  the  delta. 

projecting   beyond   the   coast-line   is  formed.     The  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  is  of  this  character. 


DELTA  OF  THE  GANGES. 


44.  Layers  of  Sand  and  Mud  Along  the  Sea-Shore. — Much 
sediment  is  deposited  outside  of  the  mouths  of  the  great  rivers  of 
the  world,  slowly  but  surely  filling  the  adjacent*  portions  of  the 


DELTA  OP  THE  UISSISSIFPI. 

bay,  or  other  body  of  water,  into  which  they  empty.  Ocean 
currents  and  waves  aid  in  distributing  this  sediment  along  the 
sea-shores  in  horizontal  layers  of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel.  Imbedded 
in  the  sediment  are  the  shells,  bones,  and  other  hard  parts  of 
animals  and  of  plants  that  live  along  the  sea-shores,  or  are  brought 
down  with  the  detritus  of  the  river. 

45.  Formation  of  Rock-Layers. — In  the  course  of  time  the 
sea-shore  sediment  becomes  consolidated  in  much  the  same  way 
that  mortar  hardens,  and  is  then  called  stratified  rock — each  layer 
of  mud  or  sand  becoming  a  layer,  or  stratum  (plural,  strata'),  of 

1.  The  force  that  lifts  and  folds  rock-strata  to  form  continents  and  mountains  is  called 
lattral  pressure.  It  is  supposed  to  originate  as  follows:  The  interior  of  the  earth  is  very 
hot,  and  is  constantly  giving  off  some  of  its  heat  to  the  surrounding  crust,*  which  in  turn 
gives  off  heat  into  space  As  a  consequence  the  interior  is  losing  heat,  and  getting  grad- 
ually cooler;  while  the  crust  receives  as  much  heat  as  it  gives  off  and  changes  but  little,  if 
any ,  in  temperature.  As  cooling  bodies  decrease  in  size,  the  interior  of  the  earth  becomes 
constantly  smaller;  and  as  the  crust  fits  itself  to  the  shrinking  interior,  its  particles 
crowd  each  other  sidewise.  or  laterally 

fllustraiions. — If  a  number  of  persons  form  a  circle,  each  individual  standing  close  to 
each  adjoining  one,  they  may  be  considered  as  representing  particles  in  the  earth's  crust. 
Now,  let  each  take  one  step  toward  the  center  of  the  circle,  and  each  will  crowd  his 


rock.  As  sediment  is  always  deposited  in  horizontal  layers,  it 
follows  that  stratified  rocks  are  always  horizontal  when  first 
formed.  The  remains  of  plants  and  animals  found  in  these  rocks 
are  caWeA  fossils;  and  these  fossils  tell  us  what  plants  and  animals 
lived  at  the  time  that  any  rock-stratum  was  being  formed. 


PICTnUE  OF  FOSSILIFEROnS  ROCK. 


46.  Extension  of  Land-Areas.* — The  stratified  rocks  formed 
along  sea-shores  gradually  emerge  above  the  surface  of  the  water, 
first,  as  mud-flats  at  low  tide;  next,  as  sea-shore  marshes;  finally, 
as  low  coast  plains.  Thus,  through  the  agency  of  running  water, 
the  elevated  portions  of  continents  are  eroded;  and  the  detritus  so 
obtained  serves  to  increase  the  size  of  the  land-areas  by  building 
the  coast-lines  farther  out  into  the  sea. 

47.  Former  Position  of  the  Sea. — Wherever  stratified  rocks 
containing  fossils  of  sea-animals  are  now  found  it  is  certain  that 
the  sea  once  held  sway.     Such  rocks  form  nearly  all  the  land- 


,77T7TT777TTT7ff77 


HOW  LAND-ARBAS  ARE  EXTENDED. 

>.  I.and-building.  «.  Outlet  of  the  pond. 

surface  of  the  earth,  and  they  are  found  on  the  sides  of  every 
mountain-range  in  the  world. 

MOUNTAIN-MAKING,  EARTHQUAKES,  AND  VOLCANOES. 

48.  How  Strata  Came  to  be  Inclined. — Where  stratified 
rocks  occur  on  mountain  sides  the  strata  are  usually  inclined* 
instead  of  horizontal. 

It  is  supposed  that  some  mighty  force'  has  lifted  the  rock-strata 
above  the  surface  of  the  ocean  to  help  form  continents  and  islands. 

49.  Elevation  of  Plains  and  Plateaus. — Large  areas  of 
stratified  rocks  have  been  raised  but  little  above  the  sea-level, 
with  but  little  change  from  their  horizontal  position,  thus  forming 
the  great  low-plain  regions  of  the  world.  The  Great  Central  Plain 
of  North  America,  lying  between  the  Rocky  and  the  Appalachian 

neighbor  sidewise,  producing  lateral  pressure,  and  the  row  of  persons  constituting  the 
circle  must  bend  in  yielding  to  this  pressure.  In  like  manner,  the  lateral  pressure 
developed  in  the  earth's  cru-'t  produces  a  bending  or  folding  of  the  crust  as  it  falls  toward 
the  shrinking  interior,  very  much  as  the  skin  of  a  baked  apple  becomes  wrinkled  as  the 
expanded  juices  of  the  hot  apple  contract  on  cooling. 

Lay  several  sheets  of  paper  in  a  pile  upon  a  table,  and  press  two  opposite  edges  of  the 
paper  laterally  toward  each  other.  The  paper  will  be  caused  to  wrinkle  and  fold,  thus 
illustrating  how  lateral  pressure  has  caused  the  wrinkles,  which  we  call  mountains,  upon 
the  earth's  surface. 

*  adjacent:  \yitig  near.  arMj:  surfaces.  (Mr/iif/rf:  slanting. 

erusi  of  the  earth:  all  of  the  solid  part  of  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  several  thousand  feet 


CHANGES   IN   THE  SURFACE   OF   THE   EARTH. 


13 


mountains,  is  an  example.  Other  large  areas  have  been  lifted, 
with  but  little  change  from  their  horizontal  position,  to  more  than 
one  thousand  feet  elevation,  forming  plateau  regions.  The  Great 
Basin  of  Utah  is  an  example. 

50.  Elevation  of  Mountain-Ranges. — Where  thick  deposits 
of  newly  made  rock  occurred  along  sea-shores,  the  crust  of  the 
earth  was  weakest  and  yielded  most  easily  to  the  forces  of 
upheaval;  and  there  the  rock-strata  have  been  bent  and  folded, 
and  broken  and  left  inclined  at  various  angles.     The  great  ridges 


CONTINUOUS  STRATA  OVER  THK  MOUNTAIN   TOP.* 

thus  formed  are  the  mountain-ranges  of  the  world  at  present,  and 
they  represent  the  position  of  the  sea-shores  of  the  past.'  Study 
the  maps  of  the  continents,  and  observe  that  most  mountain-ranges 
are  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  sea-shores  of  the  present. 

51.  Oldest  Mountains   Farthest    from  the  Sea. — As  the 

low  plains  between  mountains  and  the  sea  have  been  built  up  of 
material  resulting  from  erosion,  it  follows  that  those  mountains 
farthest  removed  from  the  sea  are  the  oldest.  The  Coast  Range 
Mountains  are  younger  than  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  latter  are 
younger  than  the  Rockj'  Mountains. 


AN  OLD  ERODED  MOUNTAIN-RANGE.' 

52.  Oldest  Mountains  Lowest. — It  is  also  true  generally  that 
the  oldest  mountains  are  the  lowest,  because  longest  subjected  to 
erosion.  The  Andes,  Himalaya,  Pyrenees,  Sierra  Nevada,*  and 
Alps,  are  all  recently-formed,  or  young,  mountains,  and  they  are 
the  highest  mountain-ranges  in  the  world.  The  Appalachians,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  but  2,000  or  3,000  feet  high,  and  they  are 
among  the  oldest  mountains  in  the  world.  Geologists  say  that 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  would  be  about  20,000  feet  high,  if 
they  had  not  been  eroded. 

53.  Earthquakes. — The  upfolding  of  the  earth's  crust  to  form 
mountains  is  a  very  slow  process,  as  rocks  can  be  made  to  bend 
and  fold  only  very  slowly.  But  the  mountain-making  force  is  so 
irresistibly  great  that  all  rocks  yield  to  the  strain  in  time,  and  either 
bend  or  break. 

Wherever  mountain-making  is  still  in  progress,  the  strata  some- 
times yield  or  break  so  suddenly  as  to  cause  a  trembling,  or  shock, 
which  is  transmitted  through  the  rocks  in  all  directions,  often  with 

1.  The  figure  shows  a  young  mountain-range  in  which  the  strata  of  rock  are  continuous 
up  one  side,  over  the  summit,  and  down  the  other  side. 

2.  Stratified  rocks  are  being  formed  along  the  sea-shores  of  the  present  just  as  they 
were  formed  in  the  past,  and  these  newly  made  rocks  are  yielding  to  the  great  forces 
within  the  earth's  crust  now,  just  as  in  the  past. 

In  some  places  the  sea-shores  are  rising  slowly— a  few  inches  in  a  century,  perhaps — to 
make  new  mountain-ranges,  and  to  increase  the  height  of  others  recently  formed.  The 
western  coast  of  South  America  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  are  undergoing  such  a  slow 
elevation. 

In  other  places  the  rock-strata  seem  to  bend  downward  instead  of  upward,  and  the  coast- 
line is  sinking  instead  of  rising.  The  coasts  of  Greenland,  Holland,  and  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States  are  gradually  sinking,  and  the  ocean  is  slowly  submerging*  the  land. 

Land-areas  are  increased  by  the  elevation  of  coast-lines,  and  decreased  by  their  sub- 
sidence.*   In  past  times  there  have  been  many  changes  of  level  along  the  sea-shores  of  the 


g^eat  violence.  A  trembling  of  the  earth's  surface,  due  to  such 
internal  causes,  is  called  an  earthquake.  Mountain-making  occurs 
principally  along  sea-shores;  and,  therefore,  earthquake  shocks  also 
are  most  frequent  on  mountainous  islands,  and  along  the  coast 
regions  of  continents. 

54.  Volcanoes. — When  rock -strata  are  broken  in  the  process 
of  mountain-making,  intensely  hot,  molten  rock-material  some- 
times flows  out  through  the  fractures.  This  molten  rock-material 
is  called  la'va.  As  it  flows  out  it  gradually  cools  and  hardens 
to  form  a  porous  rock,  which  is  also  called  lava ;  and  successive 
outflows  of  lava  gradually  build  up  a  mountain,  called  a  volcano. 
The  top  of  a  volcano  is  a  cup-shaped  depression,  called  a  crater. 


SUCCESSIVELY  FORMED  CRATERS  OF  VE.SUVTUS. 

In  this  crater  is  usually  a  small  lake  of  molten  rock-material, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  upper  end  of  a  column  of  lava  extending 
down  through  the  rocks  several  thousand  feet. 

55.  Active  Volcanoes. — When  water  soaks  through  the  porous 
lava  of  which  a  volcano  is  composed,  it  sometimes  comes  into 
contact  with  the  column  of  molten  lava.  Steam  is  thus  suddenly 
produced  with  such  great  expansive  force  that  it  blows  the  contents 
of  the  crater  and  portions  of  the  top  of  the  volcano  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  feet  into  the  air.  Such  an  explosion  is  called  a 
volcanic  eruption,  and  a  volcano  in  this  condition  is  said  to  be 
active.'    Nearly  all  the  active  volcanoes  in  the  world  are  near 


VESUVIUS  IN   ACTION. 

world — the  land  sometimes  rising  and  sometimes  sinking,  but  on  the  whole  the  rising  has 
been  greater  than  the  sinking,  as  land-areas  have  greatly  increased  since  stratified  rocks 
began  to  form. 

3.  The  figure  shows  a  section  across  an  old  mountain-range  that  has  been  much  eroded 
since  its  upheaval;  and  the  stratified  rocks  that  once  formed  its  summit  have  been  carried 
away  piecemeal*  to  form  new  rocks. 

4.  Though  the  Coast  Range  Mountains  are  younger  than  the  Sierra  Nevada,  they  are. 
much  lower — probably  because  they  are  still  undergoing  elevation,  and  have  not  reached 
their  greatest  height. 

5.  Mount  Vesuvius  in  Italy  is  a  volcano  built  upon  a  plain  by  outflows  of  lava;  Popo- 
catepetl in  Mexico  is  a  volcano  built  upon  a  plateau  by  outflows  of  lava  and  by  the 
materials  thrown  into  the  air  during  eruption;  and  St.  Helena  is  an  island  composed  of 
volcanic  matter  in  the  Atlantic  west  of  Africa  and  rises  from  the  bed  of  the  deep  ocean. 

•  subnurgingi  covering  with  water.        subsidence',  sinking.       piecemeal',  piece  by  piece. 


14 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


sea-shores   in  recently  formed   mountains,   or  where   mountain- 
making  is  now  taking  place. 

56.  Extinct  Volcanoes. — Mountains  with  crater-shaped  sum- 
mits, and  composed  whollj'  or  partly  of 
solid  lava,  are  found  in  nearly  all  mountain- 
ranges,  even  where  active  volcanoes  do 
not  now  exist.  Such  mountains  are  called 
extinct  volcanoes. 


SECTION  OF   A   VOLCANO. 


57.  Hot  Springs  and  Geysers. — The 
rocks  of  some  extinct  volcanoes  are  still 
very  hot  even  quite  near  the  surface;  and  the  water  that  soaks 
into  the  ground  on  such  mountains  comes  to  the  surface  as  hot 
springs  and  geysers — the  last  expiring  efforts  of  a  volcano  that  is 
becoming  extinct. 

58.  Summary. — From  what  is  presented  in  this  chapter,  it  is 
seen  that  erosion  is  tending  to  destroy  the  mountains,  and  lower 
the  elevation  of  continents,  while  increasing  their  extent;  and 
that,  in  the  course  of  time,  if  nothing  interferes,  the  mountains 
would  all  be  carried  down  to  the  sea.     But  forces  that  originate 


in  the  unequal  contraction  of  the  earth's  interior  and  its  crust,  are 
constantly  producing  upheavals  along  sea-shores,  thus  making  new 
mountains  to  take  the  place  of  the  old. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  meant  by  erosion?     Define  detritus,  sediment,  silt. 

Explain  how  the  mountains  are  carried  to  the  sea  by  rivers. 

Describe  the  upper  course  of  a  river.  The  lower  course.  The  middle 
course.  What  is  an  alluvial  plain?  Give  an  example.  What  is  a  delta? 
How  formed?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  and 
that  of  the  Mississippi?     Explain  the  cause  of  the  difiference. 

Explain  how  stratified  rocks  are  formed.  What  is  a  stratum?  Why  are 
rock-strata  horizontal  when  first  formed?    What  is  a  fossil? 

Explain  how  mountains  are  made. 

What  is  a  plain?  A  plateau?  Where  is  the  Great  Central  Plain  of  North 
America? 

Why  are  mountain-ranges  parallel  to  sea-coasts? 

Which  are  nearer  to  the  sea,  old  mountains  or  young  mountains? 

What  is  an  earthquake?     How  is  it  caused? 

What  is  a  volcano?  A  crater?  Define  lava.  What  is  an  active  volcana 
What  is  the  cause  of  a  volcanic  eruption?    What  is  an  extinct  volcano? 

What  is  the  cause  of  hot  springs  and  geysers? 

Give  a  summary  of  the  results  of  erosion  and  how  they  are  counteracted. 


LAND-SURFACE   OF  THE  EARTH/ 


59.  Extent. — About  one  fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land, 
in  many  separate  areas,  each  inclosed  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 
The  land-surface  is  varied  by  highlands  and  lowlands. 

HIGHLANDS. 

60.  Importance  of  Highlands. — Highlands  are  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  study  of  geography,  because  the  position  and  extent 
of  nearly  all  other  surface  features  of  the  earth — capes,  peninsulas, 
islands,  valleys,  plains,  seas,  gulfs,  baj-s,  lakes,  and  rivers — depend 
upon  the  position,  direction,  and  extent  of  mountains.  Mountains 
give  direction  to  rivers,  and  furnish  the  material  with  which  the 
rivers  enrich  plains  and  valleys;  and  they  also  act  as  barriers  to 
the  winds,  and  thereby  affect  the  temperature  and  rainfall  of 
adjacent  lowlands.  The  highlands  thus  often  ser\-e  to  make  of 
one  section  a  barren  desert,  and  of  another  a  fertile  plain,  where 
prosperous  nations  build  great  cities,  and  where  civilization  most 
rapidly  develops. 

61.  Mountain-Chains. — A  long  and  narrow  tract  of  country 
of  2, GOO  feet  or  more  in  elevation,  constitutes  a  mountain-range. 
The  direction  in  which  a  mountain-range  extends  is  called  its 
trend.  The  highest  part  of  a  mountain-range  is  called  the  crest, 
or  summit.  By  erosion  the  slopes  of  a  mountain-range  are  usually 
cut  into  mountain- masses  more  or  less  conical,*  called  peaks.  A 
chain  or  row  of  well-marked  peaks  is  called  a  sierra.  The  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  are  a  typical*  mountain-range.  When  two 
mountain-ranges  are  joined  together  and  trend  in  quite  diflFerent 
directions,  the  less  extensive  of  the  two  is  called  a  spur. 

62.  Mountain-Systems. — As  mountains  are  formed  by  the 
upheaval  of  sea-coasts,  the  ranges  situated  near  each  other  are 
generally  parallel  to  each  other,  and  to  the  adjacent  sea-coast.  Such 
a  series  of  parallel  ranges  taken  together  constitutes  a  mountain- 
system.  The  Appalachian  Mountains,  consisting  of  the  Alleghany, 
Blue  Ridge,  and  other  ranges  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  are  a  tj'pical  mountain-system.     The  R6cky   Mountains, 


Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  the  Coast  Range,  in  the  western 
part  of  North  America,  form  another. 

63.  Plateaus. — Highlands  are,  in  some  cases,  broad  tracts  of 
country  called  plateaus,  elevated  i  ,ooo  feet  or  more,  and  extending 
over  a  width  of  several  hundred  miles. 

A  plateau  is  usually  more  or  less  entirely  inclosed  by  mountain- 
ranges.    The  Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada  is  a  typical  plateau. 

A  plateau  may  be  comparatively  level;  but,  like  mountains,  these 
highlands  are  generally  eroded  into  irregularities  by  rivers. 

LOWLANDS. 

64.  Plains. — Broad  tracts  of  land,  less  than  i,ooo  feet  in  eleva- 
tion, are  ca^tA. plains.  They  occur  between  two  mountain-systems, 
or  between  a  mountain-system  and  the  ocean.  They  are  com- 
posed of  stratified  rocks  formed  by  detritus  from  the  adjoining 
mountain-systems.  Plains  of  considerable  extent  are  diversified 
by  hills,  producing  rolling  countrj-;  and  generally  rise  almost 
imperceptibly  into  plateaus  or  mountains.  The  Great  Central  Plain 
of  North  America  is  a  typical  plain. 

65.  Kinds  of  Plains. — Densely*  wooded  plains  are  called 
selvas  and  jungles;  grassy  plains  are  called  prairies  and  llanos; 
plains  and  plateaus,  nearly,  or  entirely,  devoid  of  life,  are  called 
deserts  and  steppes;  wet  plains  are  called  swamps  and  tundras. 

66.  Valleys. — The  lowland  between  two  mountain-ranges,  or 
between  mountain-peaks,  is  called  a  valley.  A  valley  between 
two  mountain-ranges  maj'  have  been  formed  by  the  upfolding  of 
the  mountains.  It  may  be  partly  filled  by  sediment,  and  be  quite 
level.  Such  a  valley  is  often  called  a.  plain.  The  Sacramento  and 
Salinas  valleys  are  good  examples  of  valley  plains. 

A  valley  between  two  mountain-peaks  is  always  the  result  of 
erosion. 

A  valley  is  generally  traversed*  by  a  stream  fed  by  tributaries 
from  the  adjacent  mountains.  A  true  plain  region  that  has  one 
prominent  river  is  often  called  a  valley;  as  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


1.  Before  reading  tiU  chapter  find,  on  the  proper  maps,  the  location  of  the  following:  'conicat:  shaped  like  a  cone.  densely:  thickly.  traversed:  crossed. 

Indo-China;  Australia;  Sumatra;  Java;  BOr'neo;  Ascension  Island:  Cape  Cod;  the  Gulf  typical:  having  the  most  important  qualities  of  a  thing;  possessing  very  fully  the 

of  California;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  the  Alra'tian  (shl'anl  Islands.  qualities  by  which  a  thing  is  known. 


LAND-SURFACE    OF    THE    EARTH. 


15 


Very  narrow  and  deep  valleys  caused  by  erosion  are  called 
canons,  gulches,  and  arroy'os.  The  Colorado  River  flows  in  such 
a  caiion  more  than  one  mile  in  depth. 

A  valley  that  cuts  across  a  mountain-range  is  called  2.  pass,  and 
is  usually  formed  by  the  gradual  erosion  of  the  crest  of  a  mountain- 
range  separating  two  caiions. 

Mountain-valleys  present  some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the 
world. 

CONTINENTS  AND  ISI^ANDS. 

67.  Distinction  between  Continents  and  Islands. — Bodies 
of  land  are  called  either  continetits  or  islands,  according  to  their 
size  and  the  arrangement  of  their  highlands  and  lowlands. 

Islands  differ  from  continents  in  being  smaller,  and  in  having 
the  greatest  elevation  in  the  central  part.  Greenland  is  supposed 
to  have  a  central  mountain-range,  and  hence  is  an  island. 

A  continent  is  not  only  a  large  body  of  land,  but  its  highlands 
are  generally  near  the  border,  and  inclose  an  extensive  interior 
plain  or  plateau.     North  America  is  a  typical  continent. 

68.  Number  and  Names  of  Continents. — The  continents  are 
five  in  number:  North  America,  South  America,  Eurasia,'  Africa, 
and  Australia. 

69.  Continental  Axes. — Each  mountain-system  in  a  continent 
is  a  continental  axis,  or  line  of  elevation.  The  longest  and  highest 
system  is  called  \hQ  primary  axis;  the  others  are  called  secondary 
axes.  The  Andes  are  the  primary  axis  of  South  America,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  of  North  America. 

70.  Arrangement  of  Islands. — Islands  are  usually  arranged 
in  elongated*  groups,  continuous  with  mountain-ranges  on  the 
adjacent  continents,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Aleutian  Islands;  or 
parallel  to  such  mountain-ranges,  as  in  the  case  of  the  islands 
a,long  the  west  coast  of  Canada.  They  are  in  reality  mountain- 
peaks,  and  the  straits  that  separate  them  from  each  other,  or  from 
the  mainland,  are  submerged  valleys  between  the  peaks. 

71.  Elevation  of  Islands. — Turn  to  the  map  of  ocean  depths 
(p.  19),  and  observe  that  islands  are  generally  in  the  shallow  parts 
of  the  ocean.  An  elevation  of  the  ocean-bed  1,000  feet  would 
show  many  of  them  as  mountain-peaks  in  the  mountain-systems 
of  adjoining  continents. 

For  example,  an  elevation  of  600  feet  would  extend  Indo-China 
almost  to  Australia,  and  upon  the  new  peninsula  thus  formed  the 
present  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo  would  appear  as 
mountain-ranges.     (See  Physical  Map  of  Eurasia.) 

Some  islands — as  the  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  north  of  North 
America — are  merely  detached*  portions  of  a  plain,  separated  from 
the  continent  by  shallow  straits. 

72.  Volcanic  Islands. — A  few  islands,  like  Ascension  Island, 
and  St.  Helena,  west  of  Africa,  are  of  volcanic  origin.  They  rise 
with  steep  slopes  from  the  bottom  of  deep  oceans,  and  have  no 
connection  with  continental  mountains. 

73.  Island  Plants  and  Animals. — The  plants  and  animals  on 
some  islands  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  adjacent  continent. 
Such  islands  and  continent  may  have  been  one  continuous  body 
of  land  at  some  time  past,  and  a  gradual  sinking  has  resulted  in 
the  submergence  of  the  valleys.' 

CHARACTER  OF  COAST-I,INBS. 

74.  Regular  Coast-Lines. — The  character  of  the  coast-line 
of  a  continent  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  continental  high- 

1.  Europe  and  Asia  are  usually  considered  as  separate  continents;  but  as  they  constitute 
one  continuous  body  of  land,  they  are  frequently  treated  of  as  one  continent — Eurasia — 
and  are  so  called  in  this  book. 

2.  Islands  rising  from  shallow  oceans  near  shore  are  called  continental  islands;  those 


lands.  Where  mountain-ranges  are  parallel  to  some  coast-line,  and 
are  also  near  the  coast — especially  if  they  are  high  mountains — 
the  coast-line  is  regular.  (See  western  coast  of  South  America.) 
The  slope  into  and  beneath  the  adjoining  sea  is  steep.  The  few 
rivers  that  enter  the  ocean  along  such  a  coast  are  generally  short 
and  swift,  and  their  valleys  do  not  extend  out  into  the  ocean; 
hence,  there  are  few  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays,  and  consequently  few 
capes,  peninsulas,  and  islands. 

75.  Irregular  Coast-Lines. — Where  the  mountains  are  farther 
removed  from  the  ocean,  the  rivers  are  longer,  have  a  more  definite 
lower  course,  and  deposit  much  sediment  at  their  mouths.  In  this 
way  are  formed  outside  of  the 
river  mouths  sand-bars,  sand- 
banks, sandy  spits,  sandy  islands, 
and  sandy  peninsulas,  making 
what  was  a  regular  coast,  irreg- 
ular. (See  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States,  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Florida.) 

76.  Capes  and  Peninsulas. — 

Where  systems  of  highlands  are 
not  parallel  to  the  coast,  but 
extend  toward  the  sea-shore, 
the  valleys  between  the  mount- 
ain-ranges or  systems  often 
extend  a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  actual  shore-line. 
The  highlands  themselves  jut 
out  into  the  pcean  as  capes  or 
peninsulas,  and  the  submerged 
end  of  the  valley,  which  they 
partly  inclose,  is  covered  by  a 
body  of  water  called  a  sea,  gulf,  «*«"-=*"«  ^^■'^'^^  °^  "'ver  mouths. 
or  bay.  The  Gulf  of  California  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  typical 
gulfs  of  this  character. 

A  jutting  highland-chain  that  forms  such  a  peninsula  may  be 
partially  submerged  at  its  outer  end,  leaving  only  its  peaks  visible. 
These  peaks  will  then  appear  as  a  chain  of  islands.  The  Aleutian 
Islands  are  a  good  example  of  such  a  chain. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land? 

Highlands. — Why  is  the  study  of  highlands  important?  What  is  a  mount- 
ain-range? A  mountain-peak?  A  sierra?  A  spur?  A  mountain-system? 
What  is  the  trend  of  a  mountain-range?  What  is  a  plateau?  How  is  a 
plateau  usually  situated?    Name  a  typical  plateau. 

Lowlands. — What  is  a  plain?  What  are  selvas?  Jungles?  Prairies  and 
llanos?  Deserts?  Steppes?  Swamps?  Tundras?  What  are  valleys? 
Canons?  What  is  a  pass?  State  two  ways  in  which  valleys  are  formed. 
How  was  the  Caiion  of  the  Colorado  formed? 

Continents  and  Islands. — What  is  a  continent?  An  island?  A  continental 
axis?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  primary  axis  and  a  secondary  axis? 
Name  all  the  continents.  What  is  the  relation  of  islands  to  mountains? 
Of  straits  to  valleys?  What  is  a  volcanic  island?  A  continental  island? 
An  oceanic  island? 

Coast-Lines. — Upon  what  does  the  character  of  the  coast-line  of  a  conti- 
nent depend?  Name  four  positions  that  mountain-ranges  may  occupy  with 
reference  to  the  coast-line.  From  which  two  of  these  do  regular  coast-lines 
result?  From  which  do  capes  and  peninsulas  result?  What  is  the  relation 
of  highlands  to  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays?  What  is  the  relation  of  seas,  gulfs, 
and  bays  to  valleys?  Explain  how  sand-bars  and  sandy  peninsulas  are 
produced. 

rising  from  deep  oceans  are  called  oceanic  islands.    Volcanic  islands,  rising  from  the  bottom 
of  deep  oceans,  differ  from  continental  islands  in  the  rocks  that  compose  them  and  in 
their  native  animals.    No  four-footed  animals  are  natives  of  oceanic  islands. 
*  elongated:  lengthened,  extended:  stretched  out.  detached:  separated. 


16 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


WATER/ 


RIVERS. 

77.  Origin  of  Rivers.— The  rain  and  snow  that  fall  upon  the 
earth  are  the  source  of  the  water  of  rivers  and  smaller  streams; 
hence,  it  follows  that,  other  things  being  equal,  there  will  be  the 
greatest  niunber  of  rivers  where  there  is  most  rainfall  or  snowfall. 
As  mountains  serve  to  condense  the  moisture  of  the  air,  thus 
producing  great  rainfall,  many  streams  originate  in  mountainous 
regions.  Nearly  all  of  the  largest  rivers  have  their  source  in  high 
mountains;  as  the  Amazon,  Missouri,  Indus. 

78.  Direction  of  Rivers. — The  slope  of  the  surface  where  a 
rive'r  originates  determines  the  direction  in  which  it  will  flow.  As 
a  mountain-range  has  two  opposite  slopes,  the  streams  that  rise 
upon  it  flow  in  two  directions  more  or  less  opposite. 

79.  Water  -  Sheds.  —  The 
mountain -range  is  therefore 
called  a  divide,  or  water-shed, 
or  water -parting;  and  the 
streams  upon  opposite  sides  of 
a  water-shed  are  said  to  belong 
to  difierent  drainage-systems. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  are 
the  great  continental  divide  of 
North  America.  They  divide 
the  continent  into  an  eastern 
slope  and  a  western  slope. 

A  water-shed,  or  divide,  is 
not  always  mountainous,  but  is 
sometimes  comparatively  low 
land.  That  between  the  head- 
waters of  the  Mississippi  and 
Saskatchewan  has  an  elevation 
of  less  than  i,ooo  feet. 

80.  Drainage-Centers. — A 
high  mountain  -  region,  from 
which  rivers  flow  in  all  direc- 
tions, is  called  a  drainage- 
center.  

81.  Drainage-Basins. — The  slopes  and  plain-region  lying 
between  two  divides  constitute  a  drainage-basin. 

82.  River-Systems. — Each  great  continental  drainage-basin  is 
usually  drained  by  one  large  river  formed  by  many  tributaries  that 
rise  in  the  surrounding  water-sheds.  A  river  and  its  tributaries 
constitute  a  river-system;  each  tributary  is  itself  a  smaller  river- 
system,  and  drains  a  basin  of  its  own.  The  Mississippi  Vallej'  is 
a  typical  continental  drainage-basin,  and  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  tributaries  constitute  a  t^-pical  river-system. 

The  lower  end  of  a  drainage-basin  is  often  submerged,  forming 
a  gulf  or  bay,  into  which  the  river-system  discharges  its  water  and 
detritus;  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  San  Francisco  Bay. 

83.  Plateau  River-System. — As  plateaus  are  generally  bor- 
dered by  mountain-chains,  the  rivers  in  a  plateau-region  usually 
flow  into  a  lake — either  salt  or  alkaline* — situated  upon  the 
plateau;  and  unless  there  is  an  excessive  rainfall,  the  waters  of 
the  lake  do  not  overflow  the  borders  of  the  plateau  and  reach  the 

1.  Before  reading  this  chapter  find,  on  the  proper  maps.  Uie  location  of  the  following: 
Amazon  River;  Missouri  River;  Indus  River;  Saskatchewan  River;  Norway;  Newfound- 
land: lakes  Seneca  and  Cayuga;  Minnesota;  Wisconsin;  Lake  Tulare;  Great  Salt  Lake; 
Lake  Superior;  Caspian  Sea;  Mackenzie  River;  Dead  Sea:  Black  Sea;  Adriatic  Sea;  Chesa- 
peake Bay ;  Gulf  of  California;  Japan  Sea;  Yellow  Sea;  China  Sea. 


ocean.     Such  an  area  is  called  an  interior  drainage-basin;  as  the 
Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada. 

84.  Oceanic  Drainage-Areas.— The  slope  of  a  water-shed 
directly  toward  the  nearest  ocean  is  called  a  drainage-area;  and 
is  usually  drained  by  many  distinct  rivers  discharging  directly 
into  bays,  the  submerged  ends  of  small  river-basins.  The 
Atlantic  slope  of  North  America  is  a  tjpical  drainage-area  of 
that  kind. 

85.  Rivers  in  Commerce  and  Manufactures.— The  power 
of  a  river  to  do  work  is  often  used  by  man.  In  its  lower  course, 
the  river  transports  boats  and  barges;*  in  its  middle  course,  where 
the  slope  is  too  great  to  admit  of  navigation,  it  gives  power  to 
the  machinery  of  manufactories. 

GI^ACIERS. 

86.  Origin  of  Glaciers.— In 
some  parts  of  the  world  more 
snow  falls  in  winter  than  is 
melted  during  the  summer.  In 
consequence,  there  is  a  con- 
stantly accumulating  mass  of 
snow,  sometimes  several  hun- 
dred, or  even  thousand,  feet  in 
depth.  If  this  occurs  upon  a 
mountain  top,  the  weight  of 
the  packed  snow  and  ice  causes 
it  to  move  slowly  down  the 
mountain  sides  and  valleys  with 
a  sort  of  flowing  motion,  thus 
forming  a  river  of  ice,  called  a 
glacier. 

87.  Action  of  Glaciers.- A 

glacier,  by  its  great  weight, 
aided  by  rocks  imbedded  in 
its  front  and  base,  erodes  its 
channel  much  more  rapidly 
than  a  river  does. 

By  their  immense  eroding 
power  glaciers  are  able  to  cut  deep  and  steep-walled  canons  even 
in  the  hardest  granite.  Yosemite  ^'alley  is  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  by  a  glacier,  and  numerous  lakes  in  high  mountains, 
especially  in  the  Alps,  are  in  basins  scooped  out  of  solid  granite 
by  glaciers. 

88.  Fiords. — Glaciers  that  reach  down  to  the  ocean  erode  the 
coast-line  into  deep  and  narrow  bays,  called  ^or</j.  The  coasts  of 
Norwaj',  Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  Maine  furnish  excellent 
examples  of  fiords. 

89.  Motion  of  a  Glacier. — The  motion  of  a  glacier  is  very 
slow — from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  per  day,  depending  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  steepness  of  the  mountain  slope. 
As  it  descends  the  mountain  the  temperature  of  the  air  increases 
until  a  point  is  reached  where  the  end  of  the  glacier  melts  off  as 
rapidlj'  as  it  moves  forward,  and  there  the  glacier  stops.  From 
its  under  surface  pours  a  milky-white  stream,  resulting  from  the 
melting  ice.' 

2.  The  Biver  Rhone,  which  has  its  origin  in  a  melting  glacier,  is  colored  by  this  milky, 
white  water  for  many  miles.  When  it  expands  into  Lake  Geneva  the  fine  white  sediment 
settles  to  the  bottom  and  the  river  flows  out  from  the  lake  in  a  clear,  dark-blue  stream. 

^alkaline:  containing  substances  similar  to  potash  and  soda. 
b»rgtt:  two-decked  boats,  chiefly  for  freight,  and  towed  by  steamboats. 


WATER. 


17 


90.  Moraines.  —  Land-slides  and  avalanches 
from  the  adjoining  mountains  deposit  great  masses 
of  rocks  and  earth  upon  the  edges  of  glaciers. 
These  deposits  are  called  lateral  moraines.  When 
two  glaciers  unite,  two  of  these  lateral  moraines 
combine  to  form  a  medial  moraine} 

91.  Glacial  Lakes. — Where  a  glacier  stops,  it 
deposits  rocks  and  earth,  forming  a  terminal 
moraine,  and  sometimes  a  morainal  dam  across 
a  cafion.  When  in  the  course  of  time  the  glacier 
melts  entirely  away,  this  dam  restrains*  a  body  of 
water,  called  a  glacial  lake.  Many  lake-basins 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  have  been  formed 
in  this  way. 

92.  Glacial  Markings. — A  glacier  planes  and 
scratches  and  grooves  the  rocks  along  its  path, 
thereby  showing  the  direction  in  which  it  moves. 

93.  Location  of  Glaciers. 
Glaciers  are  abundant  in  polar 
regions,  and  in  high  mount- 
ains in  all  latitudes.  The 
most  noted  are  in  the  Alps ; 
the  largest  are  in  Greenland 
and  Alaska.  Fiords,  glacial 
lakes,  glacial  scratches  and 
grooves,  and  glacial  deposits 
enable  us  to  know  that  glaciers 
have  been  abundant  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  where  they 
do  not  now  exist.  The  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  and  the 
region  of  the  great  lakes 
that  lie  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States  show  much 
evidence  —  such  as  glacial 
scratches,  morainal  matter, 
and  glacial  lakes — of  past 
glacial  action.'' 

94.  Formation  of  Ice- 
bergs.—  In  high  latitudes,* 
as  in  Greenland,  where  snow 
never  disappears,  immense 
glacial  fields  form  upon  low 
elevations  even,  and  move 
slowly   toward   the    adjacent 

ocean.  Upon  entering  the  ocean  the  lower  end  is  buoyed  up  by 
the  water  with  such  force  that  large  masses  of  ice  are  broken  loose 
and  float  away  as  icebergs. 

LAKMS. 

95.  Definition. — A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  occupying  a  depres- 
sion in  the  land,  and  fed  by  streams  from  the  surrounding  slopes. 
That  part  of  the  lake  which  receives  its  principal  tributary  stream 
is  called  its  head;  the  foot,  or  lower  end,  is  where  the  overflow  is 
discharged  through  its  outlet. 

96.  How  Outlets  Occur. — As  a  lake  has  a  large  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  loses  much  water  by  evaporation — as  much,  in 

1.  This  morainal  matter  corresponds  to  the  detritus  carried  by  a  river.  It  is,  however, 
less  water-worn,  and  it  is  not  assorted  into  fine  and  coarse  material  when  it  is  deposited 
by  the  glacier.  Much  of  this  glacial  deposit  has  been  subsequently  carried  by  rivers  and 
deposited  along  their  flood-plains.* 

2.  A  great  glacier  once  had  its  origin  in  southeastern  Canada,  and  spread  in  a  fan  shape 
southeasterly,  southerly,  and  southwesterly  into  the  United  States.  In  its  progress  it 
ffouged  out  the  long,  narrow,  parallel  lakes  in  western  New  York — lakes  Seneca,  Cayu^ga, 


FLOATING   IC£B£RG. 


ILLUSTRATING  THE  ACTION  OF  GLACIERS. 

Al.  Medial  moraine;  L.  Lateral  moraine;  T. 
Terminal  moraine;  Tr.  Tributary. 


some  cases,  as  it  re- 
ceives from  the  streams 
flowing  into  it.  In 
regions  of  much  rain- 
fall (or  snowfall),  the 
water  a  lake  receives 
during  the  course  of  a 
year  is  more  than  it 
loses  by  evaporation; 
and,  in  consequence, 
its  level  rises  until  it 
overflows  its  lowest 
border,  thus  forming 
an  outlet-river. 

97.  Steppe-Lakes. 
Lakes  that  have  no 
outlet  are  called 
steppe  -  lakes.  They 
usually  occur  upon 
plateaus,  or  in  other  regions  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  light, 
and  where  more  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  than  is  received  from 
streams.  The  level  of  such  a  lake  falls  until  it  is  lower  than  the 
lowest  border  of  the  lake-basin,  and  the  lake  then  ceases  to  have 
an  outlet-river.  Some,  like  Lake  Tulare,  have  an  outlet  during  the 
rainy  season  only;  others,  like  Great  Salt  Lake,  never  rise  high 
enough  to  overflow. 

98.  How  Lake-Beds  Become  Meadows. — The  water  flowing 
into  lakes  carries  with  it  more  or  less  detritus,  which  is  mostly 
deposited  where  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  retarded  on  entering 
the  lake.  A  lake-basin,  therefore,  becomes  constantly  shallower, 
and  its  swampy  shores  become  wider,  until  it  is  completely  filled 
with  sediment  and  becomes  all  swamp.  The  swamp,  in  turn,  by 
repeated  overflows,  becomes  covered  by  more  deposits,  and  grad- 
ually changes  into  a  grassy  plain,  or  upland  meadow.  Many  such 
"meadows"  occur  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  in  valleys  which 
were  formerly  lake-basins. 

Sken-e-at'e  les.  and  Onri'da.  As  the  glacier  entered  the  United  States  its  further  progress 
was  stopped  by  the  higher  temperature,  and  immense  deposits  of  morainal  matter  were 
formed,  especially  in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin.  In  this  way  were  formed  low  and  irregular 
ranges  of  hills  of  gravel,  sand,  clay,  and  bowlders,  often  inclosing  basins  that  became 
filled  with  water.  The  very  numerous  lakes  in  Minnesota  are  nearly  all  of  this  character. 
*  restrains:  keeps  back.  high  latitudes:  latitudes  at  a  great  distance  from  the  Equator. 
fiood-platn:  that  part  of  a  river-plain  which  the  river  overflows  at  certain  seasons. 


18 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


99.  How  Lakes  Become  Salt. — Rocks  and  soil  everywhere 
contain  various  substances  that  dissolve  in  water;  among  these 
are  common  salt  and  al'kali.*  The  water  that  flows  into  a  lake 
alwa3-s  contains  more  or  less  of  these  substances  dissolved,  but 
they  are  in  such  small  quantities  that  we  call  the  water  fresh. 
As  steppe-lakes  have  no  outlet,  and  only  water  passes  off  bj' 
evaporation,  the  quantity  of  salt  or  alkali  in  the  lake  becomes 
constantly  greater  and  the  quantity  of  water  less,  until  the  lake 
of  fresh  water  becomes  in  the  course  of  a  long  time  a  salt  lake,  or 
an  aUcahne  lake.' 

100.  How  Salt  Lakes  Become  Fresh. — All  lakes  that  have 
an  outlet  remain,  or  become,  fresh,  because  all  substances  that  can 
be  dissolved  are  carried  on  to  the  ocean.  Lake  Suf)erior  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  body  of  salt  water  at  some  past  time,  and  to  have 
become  fresh  in  the  way  described. 

101.  Origin  of  Lake-Basins. — The  basins  occupied  by  lakes 
have  various  origins.  Some  are  undoubtedly  depressions  that 
existed  in  a  shallow  sea-bottom  that  was  uplifted  to  form  land- 
surface.  The  basins  of  Lake  Superior,  Great  Salt  Lake,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  the  great  lakes  along  the  Mackenzie  River  are 
probably  of  this  character.  And,  as  a  rule,  the  great  lakes  of  the 
world  have  a  like  origin.  Other  lake-basins,  in  high  mountains," 
have  been  gouged  out  of  the  solid  rock  by  a  glacier.  They  are 
usually  narrow  and  deep,  and  seldom  of  great  length.  Glaciers 
also  form  lake-basins  by  depositing  morainal  dams  across  valleys 
and  canons. 

102.  Crater  Lakes. — Some  lakes,  like  Crater  Lake  in  Oregon, 
occupy  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  This  remarkable  lake  is 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Cascade  Range,  6,ooo  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  more  than  7  miles  long  and  5  miles  wide.  The  water  is 
intensely  blue,  and  the  walls  rise  in  precipices  from  900  to  2,200 
feet  high.  A  cinder-cone  rises  in  the  midst  of  the  lake  600  feet 
above  the  water,  and  two  other  cones  project  from  the  bottom,  but 
do  not  reach  the  surface.  The  lake  is  thought  to  be  the  deepest 
in  America. 

103.  Water-shed  Lakes.^Lake-basins  are  generally  situated 
upon  water-sheds,  and  the  lakes  themselves  are  often  improperly 
spoken  of  as  the  sources  of  rivers. 

OCEANS. 

104.  Extent  and  Definition. — About  three  fourths  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  by  a  continuous  body  of  salt  water, 
called  T/te  Ocean,  or  T/te  Sea,  which  surrounds  all  the  continents 
and  islands.  Different  parts  of  this  ocean  are  called  by  different 
names;  as  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Pacific  Ocean,  etc. 

105.  Why  the  Ocean  is  Salt. — Nearly  all  the  rivers  of  the 
worid  flow  into  the  ocean,  but  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  ocean 
does  not  seem  to  var>-;  for  it  loses  as  much  by  evaporation  as  it 
receives  from  rivers  and  storms.  Like  steppe-lakes,  it  has  no 
outlet  excepting  evaporation,  and  consequently  its  waters  become 
constantly  more  salty.' 

106.  Surface  of  the  Ocean-Bed. — The  bed  of  the  ocean,  Uke 
the  land-surface,  is  diversified  by  plains,  valleys,  plateaus,  mount- 
ains, etc.;  and  mountain-systems  and  ranges  in  the  sea  are 
generally  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  to  those  on  land.  Islands  are  but 
the  projecting  summits  of  partly  submerged  mountains. 

1.  The  procen  by  wUch  a  fresh-water  lake  becomes  salt  or  alkaline  can  be  illustrated  by 
boiling  down  some  sweetened  water,  or  some  brine,  to  show  that  as  the  amount  of  water 
becomes  less,  the  taste  of  the  sugrar  or  the  salt  is  stronger. 

2.  The  proportion  of  salt  and  other  mineral  substances  dissolved  in  sea-water  is  about 
three  and  one  half  per  cent:  in  the  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  fifteen  per  cent;  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  twenty-four  per  cent;  of  the  Black  Sea,  one  and  four  fifths  per  cent;  of  the  Caspian 


The  section  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  Ireland  to  Newfound- 
land shows  a  great  submerged  plateau;  while  the  section  at  the 
Tropics  and  the  Equator  shows  great  variation  in  depth. 


THK   TELEGRAPHIC    PLATEAP. 

107.  Slope  of  the  Ocean-Bed.— The  slope  of  the  ocean-bed 
below  a  shore-line  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  land  adjacent. 
This  is  shown  on  the  map  of  land  elevations  and  ocean  depths. 
It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  the  largest  deep-ocean  areas  lie  adjacent 
to  the  highest  mountains,  and  that  the  shallower  sea-bottoms  lie 
nearest  to  the  lower  mountains. 

108.  Shore-Line  of  the  Ocean.— The  shore- line  of  the  ocean 
is  the  coast-line  of  the  land,  and  has  like  irregularities  that  fit  the 
coast-line  of  the  land. 

109.  Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays.— Seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  are  bodies 
of  water  submerging  the  lower  ends  of  river-basins,  and  are 
bounded  by  the  same  lines  of  elevation;  as  the  Adriatic  Sea,  Gulf 
of  California,  and  Chesapeake  Bay.  Some  seas  are  areas  that 
though  submerged  now  will  finally  become  land-.surface  by  eleva- 
tions now  in  progress;  as  the  Japan,  Yellow,  and  China  seas.' 

QUESTIONS. 

Orig^  and  Direction  of  Rivers. — Name  the  sources  of  rivers  and  smaller 
streams.  What  follows  from  this?  Why  do  so  many  streams  originate  in 
high  moimtains?  How  may  you  know  the  direction  in  which  a  river  will 
flow? 

Divides. — What  is  a  divide?  Give  two  other  names  for  a  divide.  Name 
and  locate  two  great  rivers  separated  by  a  low  divide.  Three  great  rivers 
that  have  their  sources  in  high  divides.  What  and  where  is  the  great  conti- 
nental divide  of  North  America?  What  is  a  drainage-center?  How  does  it 
dififer  from  a  divide? 

Drainage-Basins  and  River- Systems. — What  is  a  drainage-basin?  A  river- 
system?  Name  and  locate  a  drainage-basin.  A  river-system.  What  part  of 
a  drainage-basin  is  usually  submerged  by  the  sea?  What  name  is  given  to 
a  body  of  water  that  submerges  the  lower  end  of  a  drainage-basin?  Name 
and  locate  two  such  bodies  of  water.  Name,  locate,  and  describe  an  interior 
drainage-basin.    An  oceanic  drainage-area.     Of  what  uses  are  rivers  to  man? 

Glaciers. — ^\^lat  is  a  glacier?  How  does  it  originate?  Compare  erosion 
by  a  glacier  and  erosion  by  a  river.  Where  is  Yosemite  Valley?  How  was 
it  formed?  What  are  fiords?  Name  and  locate  four  sea-coasts  where  there 
are  fiords.  What  are  lateral  moraines?  Medial  moraines?  Terminal 
moraines?  What  is  a  morainal  dam?  A  glacial  lake?  What  are  glacial 
markings?  Name  and  locate  two  countries  where  glaciers  now  exist. 
Explain  how  icebergs  are  formed. 

Lakes. — What  is  a  lake?  What  is  the  head  of  a  lake?  The  foot  of  a  lake? 
Under  what  conditions  does  a  lake  have  an  outlet?  What  is  a  steppe-l^e? 
Why  has  it  no  outlet?  Explain  how  lake-beds  become  swamps.  How 
swamps  become  meadows.  Explain  how  fresh-water  lakes  become  salt. 
How  salt  lakes  become  fresh.  What  is  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  the 
basins  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  Lake  Superior,  and  the  Caspian  Sea?  What  is  the 
probable  origin  of  most  lat^e  lakes?  What  is  the  origin  of  most  lakes  in 
high  mountains?     Descrilie  them. 

Oceans. — How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered  by  the  ocean? 
What  different  names  are  given  to  different  parts  of  the  ocean?  Why  is  the 
ocean  water  salt?  Wliat  is  the  character  of  the  ocean-bed?  Describe  a 
section  of  the  ocean-bed  from  Newfoundland  to  Ireland. 

Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays. — What  are  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays?  How  are  they 
bounded?  Name  three  seas  whose  beds  are  now  being  elevated  into  land- 
surfaces? 

Sea,  one  and  three  tenths  per  cent;  of  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers,  less  than  two  one- 
hundredths  per  cent. 

3  Paget  Sound,  The  Valley  of  the  WillSm  ette,  and  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
(wah  keen')  Valley.  Salton  Sea,  and  the  Gulf  of  California  were  probably  once  a  similar 
chain  of  seas,  partially  inclosed  by  islands  and  peninsulas. 

*  (Mali:  a  substance  resembling  soda  and  potash. 


CLIMATE. 


19 


MAP  QUESTIONS.— ill  Uiu  map  of  oceau-bed,  what  is  the  greatest 
depth  shown  by  the  white?  By  the  lightest  blue?  The  least  depth  indicated 
by  the  darker  blue?  By  the  solid  blue?  Where  is  Dolphin  Rise?  Tusca- 
rora  Deep?  Compare  the  slope  of  the  ocean-bed  near  shore  with  that  of 
the  adjacent  land-surface  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America.  On  the 
eastern.  On  which  side  of  North  America,  eastern  or  western,  are  the 
mountains  highest?    On  which  side  are  the  ocean  waters  shallowest? 


Is  the  oceau-bed  surrounding  Icelanii  higher  or  lower  than  the  ocean-bed 
of  Tuscarora  Deep?  How  much?  What  is  the  lowest  depth  of  the  ocean- 
bed  surrounding  the  islands  of  the  Japanese  Empire?  If  you  could  stand  on 
the  ocean-bed  in  the  western  part  of  Tuscarora  Deep,  how  do  you  think  the 
Japanese  islands  would  appear? 

Which  of  the  three  profile  lines  crosses  the  deepest  water?  On  this  profile 
which  ocean  has  the  longest  stretch  of  deep  sea-bed? 


CLIMATE. 


HEAT. 

110.  Source  of  Heat. — The  earth  receives  its  heat  principally 
from  the  sun.  The  sun's  rays  warm  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
the  warmed  surface  radiates,  that  is,  throws  out,  heat  into  space. 
The  heat  rays  from  the  sun  are  accompanied  by  light,  and  are  called 
"lu/ninotis"  heat;  that  radiated  by  the  earth  is  dark  heat.  The 
atmosphere  is  heated  by  both  luminous  and  dark  heat  passing 
through  it,  but  principally  by  the  latter.     The  temperature  of 


any  place  is  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  as  shown  by  a 
thermometer. 

HI.  Vapor  Retains  Heat. — Vapor  of  water  in  the  air,  like 
glass,  allows  luminous,  or  sun,  heat  to  pass  through  it  with  little 
loss,  but  retains  most  of  the  dark  heat  it  receives.  Moist  air 
therefore  allows  most  of  the  sun's  heat  to  reach  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  but  retains,  and  is  warmed  by,  the  dark  heat  escaping 
from  the  earth.' 


1.  An  ordinary  hot-liouae  illustrates  the  same  principle.  The  glass  roof  allows  sun  heat  your  face  and  the  sun  and  observe  whether  it  shuts  off  much  or  little  heat.  Try  the  same 
to  enter  the  hot-house,  where  it  becomes  dark  heat  and  is  unable  to  escape  through  the  experiment  with  a  lamp-flame  instead  of  the  sun,  then  with  a  red-hot  stove,  and  then  with 
glass.    This  can  be  illustrated  by  the  following  experiments:  Hold  a  piece  of  glass  between       a  dark-hot  stove. 


20 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


1 12.  Why  Mountain  Tops  Are  Cold.— There  is  generally  more 
or  less  vapor  in  the  air  near  the  earth's  surface,  but  verj'  little  at  the 
elevation  of  mountain  tops. 

Hence,  the  heat  received  by  a  mountain  top  is  rapidly  radiated 
without  warming  the  air,  while  that  which  reaches  a  lowland 
surface  is  shut  in  by  invisible  vapor.  In  consequence  of  this,  the 
higher  we  ascend  in  a  balloon,  or  upon  a  mountain,  the  colder  is 
the  atmosphere.  Also,  mountain-peaks  have  relatively  more  radi- 
ating surface  than  plateaus  have,  and  are  hence  colder. 

113.  The  Snow-Line. — Even  at  the  Equator  the  mountain 
tops  are  permanently  covered  with  snow  at  an  elevation  of  i6,ooo 
feet,  and  in  going  north  or  south  from  the  Equator,  the  snow-line, 
or  altitude*  of  perpetual  snow,  gradually  descends  to  the  sea-level. 

114.  Heat  of  Land-  and  Water-Surfaces. — Land-surface  is 
wanned  more  rapidly  than  water-surface  by  the  sun's  heat,  but 
water  radiates  its  heat  more  slowly.  It  follows  from  this  that 
continents  become  hotter  than  oceans  in  summer,  and  oceans 
remain  the  warmer  in  winter.  Also,  sandy  and  rocky  surfaces 
become  hotter  than  if  covered  with  vegetation;  hence,  the  scorch- 
ing heat  of  deserts  and  rocky  plateaus  in  summer  time. 

115.  Oceanic  Climates. — The  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water, 
which  become  heated  by  the  sun's  rays  very  slowly,  and  radiate 
their  heat  very  slowly,  serves  to  make  the  summers  cooler  and  the 
winters  warmer,  and  lowers  the  mean  annual  temperature  per- 
ceptibly. Such  a  climate  is  called  a  sea-shore,  or  oceanic,  climate; 
it  is  marked  by  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  throughout  the  year. 
Southwestern  Europe  has  such  a  climate,  its  winter  and  summer 
temperatures  differing  from  each  other  by  but  1 5°. 

116.  Continental  Climate. — Large  land-areas  heat  up  very 
rapidl}'  in  summer,  and  then  cool  by  radiation  very  rapidly,  pro- 
ducing an  inland,  or  continental,  climate,  marked  by  great  extremes 
of  temperature.  The  interior  of  great  continents  like  North 
America  and  Eurasia  have  exceedingly  cold  winters  and  hot 
summers. 

117.  Heat  Unequally  Distributed. — All  parts  of  the  earth's 
surface  do  not  receive  an  equal  amount  of  the  sun's  heat — equa- 
torial regions  receiving  most  and  polar  regions  least.  In  order  to 
illustrate  this,  perform  the  following  experiments: 

118.  Experiment  to  Show  Distribution  of  Heat  and 
Light. — Each  pupil  may  hold  an  orange  (or  ball)  in  the  light  of 
a  candle,  and  observe  that  one  half  of  it  is  lighted  and  warmed — 
the  greatest  light  and  heat  being  at  the  center  of  the  side  toward 
the  candle.  Rotate  the  orange  upon  its  vertical*  axis* — a  hat-pin 
thrust  through  the  orange  will  serve  conveniently  for  an  axi.s — 
and  see  that  all  parts  of  the  orange  are  successively  light  and 
dark. 

Observe  also  that  the  Equator  is  most  heated  and  lighted,  and 
the  poles  least.  This  is  because  the  rays  of  light  and  heat  fall 
vertically,  or  perpendicularly,  upon  the  surface  at  the  Equator, 
and  strike  more  and  more  slantingly  as  we  recede  from  the  Equator 
toward  the  poles. 

This  experiment  shows  why  it  is  warmer  at  the  Equator  than  it 
is  at  the  poles,  and  also  illustrates  the  cause  of  the  alternation*  of 
day  and  night.' 

1.  Let  Siulight  pass  through  a  hole  in  a  piece  of  paper  and  fall  first  upon  a  surface  per- 
pendicular to  the  beam  of  light  and  then  upon  a  slanting  surface.  Observe  in  which  case 
the  given  amount  of  light— and  the  heat  which  accompanies  it— is  spread  over  the  greater 
surface.  In  like  manner  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  spread  over  a  greater  surface  near  the  poles, 
where  it  falls  slantingly,  than  at  the  Equator,  where  it  falls  vertically,  and  hence  any  area 
in  equatorial  regions  receives  more  heat  than  an  equal  area  in  polar  regions. 

2.  If  in  the  above  ezperlment  the  candle-flame  be  floated  on  a  cork  on  the  surface  of  a  tub 
of  water,  and  the  orange  be  half  submerged  in  the  water  while  performing  its  revolution, 
the  surface  of  the  water  will  represent  to  ua  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit— that  is,  the 


119.  To  Show  Heat  Constant  the  Year  Round.— Now  carry 
the  orange  around  the  candle,  making  it  rotate  upon  the  same  axis 
as  before,  and  keeping  the  orange  and  candle-flame  at  the  same  dis- 
tance above  the  table.  This  will  represent  the  annual  revolution 
of  the  earth  about  the  sun,  if  its  axis  were  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  oi  its  orbit,  as  the  axis  of  the  orange  is  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  of  the  table,  which  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 
Observe  that  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  its  orbit  the  Equator  would  be  the  only  portion  of  the  earth 
receiving  vertical  rays,  and  that  the  heat  would  consequently  be 
constant  throughout  the  year  for  each  point  upon  the  earth- 
greatest  at  the  Equator,  and  growing  less  toward  each  pole.  There 
would  be  alternation  of  day  and  night  for  all  parts  of  the  earth, 
but  there  would  be  no  change  of  seasons,  excepting  a  slight  change 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun  in  January  and 
farthest  away  from  it  in  July.* 

120.  To  Show  Change  of  Seasons.— Now  represent  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  with  the  axis  of  the  orange  inclined* 
23>^°  (as  nearly  as  you  can)  from  the  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  its  orbit. 

At  one  time  the  North  Pole  of  the  axis  is  turned  toward  the  can- 
dle. Obser\'e  that  the  vertical  rays  then  fall  north  of  the  Equator. 
Rotate  the  orange  upon  its  inclined  axis,  and  observe  that  a  circle 
about  the  North  Pole  has  constant  day,  while  an  equal  circle  about 
the  South  Pole  has  constant  night.  This  represents  summer — ^June 
20th — for  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  winter  for  the  Southern. 

Next  carry  the  orange  one  fourth  of  the  way  around  the  candle, 
keeping  its  axis  constantly  parallel  to  its  first  position.  Observe 
that  the  vertical  rays  fall  upon  the  Equator,  and  all  parts  of  the 
earth  have  day  and  night  when  the  orange  is  rotated.  This  repre- 
sents September  20th. 

Next  carry  the  orange  around  until  directly  opposite  its  first 
position.  Here  the  South  Pole  of  the  axis  will  be  turned  toward 
the  sun.  Observe  that  the  vertical  rays  fall  south  of  the  Equator; 
that  the  North  Pole  has  constant  night  and  the  South  Pole 
constant  day.  The  Southern  Hemisphere  has  summer,  and  the 
Northern,  winter. 

Carry  the  orange  to  a  fourth  position,  opposite  the  second,  and 
see  that  the  vertical  rays  are  again  at  the  Equator,  and  all  parts 
of  the  earth  again  have  day  and  night. 

This  experiment  shows  that  the  seasonal  changes  of  temperature 
on  the  earth  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  earth  revolves  about  the 
sun,  rotating  upon  an  axis  inclined  2^)4°  from  the  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 

121.  The  Tropics  and  Polar  Circles. — If  jou  have  held  the 
axis  inclined  exactly  23^°,  the  vertical  rays  of  the  candle,  when 
the  North  Pole  of  the  axis  is  turned  toward  it,  will  fall  23^^ 
north  of  the  Equator.  Draw  a  circle  here  parallel  to  the  Equator; 
it  will  represent  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  When  the  South  Pole  of 
the  axis  is  turned  toward  the  candle,  its  vertical  rays  will  fall  23^° 
south  of  the  Equator.  Draw  a  circle  here  parallel  to  the  Equator; 
it  will  represent  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Also,  the  areas  that 
have  constant  day  or  constant  night  are  bounded  by  lines  23^° 
from  the  poles.  Draw  these  boundary  circles;  they  represent  the 
polar  circles. 

plane  in  which  lies  the  triit,  at  path,  of  the  earth  as  it  moves  aronnd  the  sun.  The  water- 
surface  is  not  the  plane — it  merely  shows  us  where  the  plane  is.  Remove  the  water  and 
the  plane  is  still  there  and  must  be  thought  of  by  the  aid  of  the  imagination. 

'altitude:  height.  vertical:  directly  toward  the  centerof  the  earth.     A  ball  dropped 

from  the  hand  will  fall  in  a  vertical  line.  A  vertical  line  is  perpendicular  to  a  horizontal 
line. 

vertical  ajris:  the  vertical  line  that  passes  through  the  center  of  a  body  and  npon  which 
it  is  supposed  to  turn,  or  rotate. 

allcmatum:  following  each  other  by  turns.  inclintd:  slanting. 


CLIMATE. 


21 


122.  Torrid  Zone. — All  that  portion  of  the  earth  that  receives 
the  vertical  rays  at  some  time  during  the  year,  and  at  all  other 
times  receives  rays  nearly  vertical,  is  the  Torrid,  or  hot,  Zone. 

123.  Frigid  Zones. — All  portions  having  constant  night  or  day 
for  twenty-four  hours  at  some  time  during  each  year,  and  receiving 
only  very  slanting  rays  from  the  sun  at  any  time,  constitute  the 
Frigid  Zones. 

124.  Temperate  Zones. — All  portions  that  never  have  verti- 
cal sun's  rays,  nor  twenty-four  hours  of  continuous  night  or  day, 
constitute  the  Temperate  Zones. 

125.  Mathematical  Zones. — The  zones  described  above, 
bounded  by  the  polar  circles  and  tropics,  are  called  mathematical 
zones.  Their  width  de- 
pends upon  the  amount 
of  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis  to  the  plane 
of  its  orbit. 

126.  Heat  Zones 
Not  Regular.— If  the 
earth's  surface  were  all 
water,  or  if  it  were  all 
land  of  uniform  char- 
acter of  soil,  and  equally 
elevated  at  all  points, 
there  would  be  regular 
heat  zones,  as  described 
above,  separated  from 
each  other  by  parallels  of 
latitude;  but  because  of 
the  alternation  of  land- 
and  water-areas,  and  of 
difference  in  elevation 
and  character  of  land- 
surface,  the  boundaries  of  thermal,  or  real  heat,  zones  are  very 
irregular,  as  shown  in  the  map  of  mean  annual  isotherms  on  the 
following  page. 

127.  Mean  Temperature. — The  mean  daily  temperature  of 
any  place  is  the  average  of  its  temperature  at  morning,  noon, 
and  evening.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  the  average  of 
mean  daily  temperatures. 

128.  isother'mal  Lines. — A  line  joining  places  having  the 
same  mean  annual  temperature,  is  called  an  isotherm,  or  an  iso- 
thermal line.  The  isotherms  of  70° — that  is,  lines  touching  all 
places  whose  mean  annual  temperature  is  70°  Fahrenheit — are 
the  isothermal  tropics.  Between  these  isothermal  tropics  lies  the 
actual,  or  thermal,  Torrid  Zone.  The  regions  lying  between  the 
isotherms  of  70°  and  30°  are  the  Thermal  Temperate  Zones. 
Beyond  the  isotherms  of  30°  lie  the  Thermal  Frigid  Zones. 

129.  Change  of  Position  of  Isotherms. — By  examining  the 
map  of  the  mathematical  zones  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lines  which 
bound  them  do  not  change  in  position,  while  the  lines  that  bound 
the  isothermal  zones  move  north  and  south  with  the  seasons. 
This  change  of  position  in  the  thermal  zones  and  isotherms  will 
be  studied  on  the  maps  of  the  thermal  zones. 

QUESTIONS. 

Heat. — ^What  is  the  principal  source  of  the  earth's  heat?  What  is  lumin- 
ous heat?  Dark  heat?  What  is  meant  when  we  say  a  surface  radiates 
heat?  How  is  the  atmosphere  heated?  How  is  the  temperature  of  a  place 
known?  (What  is  a  thermometer?  If  there  is  one  in  the  school-house, 
learn  to  read  it.) 

What  effect  has  vapor  of  water  in  the  air  upon  luminous  heat  passing 
through  it?     Upon  dark  heat? 


MAP  QUESTIONS.— What  lines  bound  the  Torrid  Zone?  What  zones  bound  it?  How 
wide  is  it?  What  would  be  its  width  if  the  earth's  axis  were  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit  30°  instead  of  23>^°  ?  Answer  the  same  questions  respecting  the  North.  Temperate 
Zone.     The  South  Temperate  Zone.     The  North  Frigid  Zone.     The  South  Frigid  Zone. 


Distribution  of  Heat. — Give  two  reasons  why  mountain  tops  are  colder 
than  valleys.  How  does  it  appear  that  mountain-peaks  have  relatively  more 
radiating  surface  than  plateaus? 

What  is  the  snow-line?  What  is  its  elevation  at  the  Equator?  Is  its  ele- 
vation greater  or  less  as  we  go  north  or  south  from  the  Equator? 

Which  becomes  heated  more  rapidly,  land  or  water?  Which  cools  more 
rapidly?  Are  continents  in  summer  hotter  or  colder  than  oceans  in  the  same 
latitude?  Which  is  colder  in  winter?  What  is  meant  by  an  oceanic  climate? 
A  continental  climate?  Mention  a  region  having  an  oceanic  climate.  In 
that  region  how  much  colder  is  the  winter  than  the  summer?  How  do  the 
winters  in  a  continental  climate  compare  with  the  summers? 

What  part  of  the  earth's  surface  receives  most  heat?     What  part  least? 
Perform  the  experiment  described  in  Sec.  118.    That  described  in  the  note. 
That  described  in  Sec.  1 19.    Illustrate,  if  you  can,  what  is  meant  by  the  plane 
of  an  orbit?     By  a  line  perpendicular  to  it?    By  a  line  inclined  to  it? 

Explain  the  change  of 
the  seasons.  When  is  it 
winter  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere?  Summer? 

How  many  degrees  is  the 
earth's  axis  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit  ?  Explain 
how  to  determine  the  posi- 
tion of  the  tropical  circles 
on  the  globe.  Of  the  polar 
circles. 

Zones. — What  is  meant 
by  the  Torrid  Zone?  The 
Frigid  Zones?  The  Tem- 
perate Zones?  What  are 
mathematical  zones?  Upon 
what  does  their  width 
depend? 

Under    what    conditions 

v?ould  heat  zones  be  regular? 

Name     three     things     that 

make  the  heat  zones  of  the 

earth    irregular.     What   do 

you    think     is     meant     by 

"  character  of  land-surface" 

in  respect  to  its  effect  upon  the  temperature  of  a  place?    Will  a  grassy  or 

a  sandy  surface  give  the  warmer  climate?    What  is  meant  by  alternations  of 

land-  and  water-areas? 

Isotherms  and  Thermal  Zones. — How  would  you  find  the  mean  daily 
temperature  of  a  place?  The  mean  annual  temperature?  Suppose  the  tem- 
perature of  a  place  is  50°  Fahrenheit  in  the  morning,  85°  at  noon,  and  65°  in 
the  evening,  what  is  the  mean  daily  temperature?  What  are  isotherms? 
What  isotherms  are  the  isothermal  tropics? 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone?  Of  the  Thermal 
Temperate  Zones?    Of  the  Thermal  Frigid  Zones? 

[See  maps  of  Thermal  Zones  on  next  page,]  , 

MAP  QUESTIONS.— What  do  the  figures  on  the  maps  of  the  thermal 
zones  indicate?  The  lines?  The  different  shades  of  pink?  The  gray?  The 
white?  Are  the  isotherms  straight  or  crooked?  Why?  Does  the  isotherm 
of  30°  bend  north  or  south  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean?  Does  that  indicate 
that  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  is  warmer  or  colder  than  the  land-areas 
in  the  same  latitude?  Does  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone  coincide  exactly  in 
position  with  the  Mathematical  Torrid  Zone?  Which  extends  farther 
north  in  July?  Why?  In  January?  Why?  In  which  hemisphere,  Northern 
or  Southern,  does  the  isotherm  of  30°  approach  nearer  to  the  Equator? 
The  isotherm  of  70°?  Which  hemisphere  has  the  largest  land-areas?  Which 
hemisphere  shows  the  greatest  difference  in  position  of  isotherms  from  July 
to  January? 

T/ie  following  questions  may  be  omitted  until  taking  up  the  study  of  the 
several  continents  to  which  they  relate: 

North  America. — What  countries  of  North  America  lie  principally  in  the 
Thermal  Torrid  Zone  in  January?  In  July?  In  the  Thermal  Frigid  Zone 
in  January?  What  part  of  North  America  lies  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone 
in  July  and  in  the  Thermal  F'rigid  Zone  in  January?  In  what  thermal 
zone  is  most  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  throughout  the  year? 
Why  are  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  so  great  in  the  Temperate  Zone  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains?  (See  Sec.  116.)  In 
January  is  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  warmer  or  colder  than  equal 
latitudes  on  the  Atlantic  coast?    Why  does  the  January  isotherm  of  30"  bend 


22 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


MAPS  OF   THERMAL    ZONES  • 

southward  in  crossing  the  continent  from  west  to  east?  Why  does  the  July 
isotherm  of  70°  bend  northward?  Is  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent  higher  or  lower  than  that  of  the  same  lati- 
tudes in  the  Atlantic  Ocean?     (See  Sec.  115.) 

South  America. — In  which  thermal  zone  is  the  greater  part  of  South 
America  in  January?  In  July?  Is  any  of  South  America  in  the  Thermal 
Frigid  Zone  during  any  part  of  the  year?  Where  is  the  hottest  part  of 
South  America?  What  is  its  mean  annual  temperature?  Which  has  the 
greater  area  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone  in  July,  North  America  or  South 
America?  In  January?  Which  has  the  greater  area  in  the  Thermal  Tem- 
perate Zone  in  July?  In  January?  Is  South  America  as  a  whole  hotter  or 
colder  than  North  America?  Which  has  the  colder  winters,  Cape  Horn 
or  equal  latitudes  in  North  America?  Does  the  Thermal  Temperate  Zone 
in  North  America  vary  in  width  during  the  year  more  than  the  Thermal 

1.  TiB  flguroa  on  these  maps  indicate  the  average  temperature  in  the  localities  where  they 
occur.  The  straight  lines  bound  mathematical  zones.  The  crooked  lines  bound  thermal 
zones.  The  darker  pink  indicates  high  temperature;  and  the  lighter  shades,  and  the  gray 
and  vFhite,  indicate  successively  lower  temperatures.  The  star  indicates  the  coldest  inhab- 
ited part  of  the  globe. 

2.  Before  reading  what  Is  said  of  winds,  find,  on  the  proper  maps,  the  location  of  the 
following:  Hindoostan';  East  Indies;  West  Indies. 

3.  As  we  ascend  above  the  earth's  surface,  there  is  less  air  above  us;  hence,  its  pressure 
la  less.    At  iH  miles  elevation,  the  pressure  is  7J4  pounds;  at  7  miles,  3K  pounds,  etc. 


Temperate  Zone  in  South  America?     Does  that  indicate  the  extremes  of 
temperature  in  North  America  to  be  greater  or  less  than  in  South  America? 

Eurasia.— In  what  thermal  zone  does  most  of  Eurasia  lie  in  January? 
Between  what  two  thermal  zones  is  it  nearly  equally  divided  in  July?  What 
countries  of  Eurasia  are  partly  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone  throughout  the 
year?  In  the  Thermal  Temperate  Zone  throughout  the  year?  What  portion 
of  the  continent  is  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone  in  July  and  in  the  Thermal 
I'rigid  Zone  in  January?  Are  the  greatest  extremes  of  temperature  in 
Eurasia  in  low,  middle,  or  high  latitudes?  Where  in  Eurasia  is  the  highest 
mean  annual  temperature?  Compare  with  the  highest  in  South  America. 
Where  is  the  lowest  mean  annual  temperature  in  the  world?  Why  is  the 
January  temperature  of  northern  and  central  Eurasia  lower  than  that  of  the 
same  latitudes  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  Why  does  the  July  isotherm  of  70° 
bend  northward  over  Eurasia?  Compare  the  thermal  zones  of  Eurasia  with 
those  of  the  same  latitudes  in  North  America  in  July.     In  January. 

Africa. — In  what  thermal  zone  is  most  of  Africa  throughout  the  year? 
Where  is  the  highest  mean  annual  temperature  in  A'frica?  Compare  it 
with  the  highest  mean  annual  temperature  in  South  America.  What  part  of 
Africa  is  always  in  the  Thermal  Temperate  Zone?  When  during  the  year  is 
northern  Africa  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone?  When  in  the  Thermal  Tem- 
perate Zone?  Which  do  you  think  is  hotter  as  a  whole,  Africa  or  South 
America?  Which  has  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  Africa  or  North 
America?  Compare  Africa  with  South  America  in  regard  to  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.     With  Eurasia. 

Australia. — In  what  thermal  zone  is  nearly  all  of  Australia  in  January? 
In  July?  What  part  of  Australia  is  always  in  the  Thermal  Torrid  Zone?  Is 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  Australia  higher  or  lower  than  that  of  the 
same  latitudes  in  South  America?  In  Africa?  Where  in  Australia  is  the 
highest  mean  annual  temperature?  Compare  it  with  the  highest  mean 
annual  temperature  in  South  America.     In  Africa. 

WINDS' 

130.  Definition. — Wind  is  air  in  motion. 

131.  Air-Pressure.— The  earth  is  surrounded  by  air,  which, 
like  all  matter,  has  weight.  Due  to  its  weight,  air  presses  down- 
ward upon  the  earth's  surface  with  a  pressure  of  about  15  pounds 
upon  every  square  inch;  for  a  column  of  air,  one  inch 
square  and  reaching  to  the  upper  limits  of  the  atmos- 
phere, weighs  15  pounds.  A  column  of  mercur>%  one 
inch  square,  and  30  inches  high,  has  the  same  weight, 
and  exerts  the  same  downward  pressure. 

The  downward  pressure  of  the  air  causes  pressure 
in  all  directions,  just  as  pressure  downward  upon  the 
surface  of  water  forces  the  surrounding  water  sidewise 
and  upward. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  is  not  always  and  everywhere 
the  same;  it  decreases  as  the  elevation,  the  temperature, 
and  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  increase.  Dry 
air,  at  60°  temperature,  at  the  sea-level,  has  a  pressure 
of  15  pounds.' 

132.  The  Barom'eter. — Fill  with  mercury-  a  glass 
tube,  about  36  inches  long,  and  closed  at  one  end. 
Invert*  the  tube  carefully,  holding  a  finger  upon  the 
open  end,  so  as  to  let  none  of  its  contents  escape,  and 
insert  the  open  end  into  a  cup  partly  filled  with  mercury. 
The  mercury  in  the  tube  will  sink  until  its  upper 
surface  is  about  30  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
mercur>'  in  the  cup,  because  the  downward  pressure  of 
the  air  upon  the  mercury  in  the  cup  just  equals  the  downward 
pressure  of  a  column  of  mercury  30  inches  high  in  the  tube.     As 

When  air  is  warmed  it  expands,  and  becomes  thinner— that  is,  its  mOl'ecules*  go 
farther  apart— so  that  there  is 'less  matter,  and  hence  less  weight,  in  a  given  space;  hence, 
the  warmer  the  air,  if  it  is  not  inclosed,  the  less  the  pressure. 

When  air  is  moist,  its  molecules  are  forced  farther  apart,  and  the  places  of  some  of 
them  are  filled  by  molecules  of  vapor.  The  molecules  of  vapor  are  lighter  than  those 
of  oxygen  or  nitrogen,  of  which  dry  air  is  chiefly  composed;  hence,  moist  air  is  lighter 
than  dry  air. 

'nielecules:  invisible  particles  supposed  to  constitute  every  kind  of  matter. 
invert:  turn  upside  down. 


II 


CLIMATE. 


23 


the  atmospheric  pressure  varies  because  of  variations  in  temper- 
ature, moisture,  and  elevation,  this  column  of  mercury  will  lengthen 
or  shorten  to  show  it.  An  instrument  like  that  just  described  is 
called  a  barometer,  and  it  is  used  to  measure  the  pressure  of  the  air. 

133.  Barometric  Pressure. — The  height  to  which  the  air 
lifts  a  column  of  mercury  is  called  its  barometric  pressure.  Low 
pressure,  or  low  barometer,  means  that  the  mercury  stands  in  the 
tube  at  a  height  of  less  than  30  inches;  high  pressure,  or  high 
barometer,  means  that  the  mercury  stands  at  a  height  of  30  inches 
or  more. 

134.  Causes  of  Wind. — When  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  greater 
at  one  place  than  at  some  adjoining  place,  the  air  begins  to  move 
from  the  place  of  higher  -toward  that  of  lower  pressure,  thus 
producing  a  wind;  hence,  winds  blow  from  high-pressure  areas 
toward  low-pressure  areas.  At  a  place  of  low  pressure  the  air  is 
forced  upward  by  the  heavier  air  from  all  sides  that  is  taking  its 
place.  Hence,  in  low-pressure  areas  there  is  an  upward  current, 
and  in  high-pressure  areas  there  is  a  downward  current;  and  the 
two  areas  are  connected  by  a  surface  wind.  Where  the  upward 
and  downward  currents  occur  there  is  no  apparent  motion  of  the 
air,  and  a  calm  prevails. 

135.  Surface  Currents  and  Upper  Currents. — As  high 
temperature  is  one  of  the  causes  of  low  pressure,  it  is  plain  that 
the  thermal  zones  are  zones  differing  in  barometric  pressure — the 
Torrid  being  a  zone  of  low  pressure.  Observe  upon  the  maps 
of  barometric  pressure  that  low  pressures  prevail  in  equatorial 
regions  and  polar  regions,  and  high  pressures  in  middle  latitudes. 
In  consequence  there  is  a  general  flow  of  cold  air  from  north  and 
south  toward  the  thermal  Equator,  while  the  hot  equatorial  air  is 
forced  upward  and  flows  outward  as  upper  currents  toward  the 
low-pressure  areas  of  the  polar  regions. 

136.  Cause  of  Change  of  Direction  of  Surface  Currents. — 

Owing  to  the  general  flow  of  air  from  north  and  south  toward  the 
Equator,  we  might  expect  north  and  south  winds  to  prevail  in 


N 


LM   60. 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


-^ 


f 


w 


equatorial  regions.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Winds  that 
approach  the  Equator  are  constantly  arriving  at  latitudes  having 
a  greater  velocity  of  rotation,  and  are  hence  left  behind;  that  is, 
they  appear  to  blow  westward.' 

137.  Trade- Winds,  or  Winds  of   the  Torrid    Zone.— In 

consequence  of  the  earth's  rotation,  winds  approaching  the  Equator 
from  the  north  are  northeast  winds  instead  of  north  winds;  and 

1.  Air  at  the  Equator  moves  easterly  with  the  surface  of  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  1,000 
miles  per  hour;  in  latitude  60°  the  rate  is  500  miles;  at  the  poles  it  is  zero.  Suppose  that  at 
A,  in  the  illustration  above,  the  velocity  of  rotation  is  500  miles  per  hour,  and  at  B,  due 
south  of  A,  it  is  600  miles  per  hour.  Suppose  that  air  starts  from  A  toward  B  with  such 
velocity  that  it  would  travel  the  distance  from  A  to  B  in  one  hour.  At  the  end  of  the  hour 
the  air  from  A  would  not  be  at  B,  but  100  miles  behind  B,  and  hence  would  seem  to  have 
taken  the  curved  path  from  A  southwesterly  to  B^ 


those  approaching  the  Equator  from  the  south  are  southeast  winds 
instead  of  south.  Within  the  Torrid  Zone  these  winds  blow 
almost  due  westerly  (see  arrows  on  maps  of  barometric  pressure) 
with  great  regularity;  and  as  they  are  of  great  aid  to  sailing 
vessels,  they  are  called  trade-winds. 

138.  Equatorial  Belt  of  Calms. — The  ascending  air  along  the 
thermal  Equator  causes  a  belt  of  calms  known  as  the  eqtiatorial 
calms.  This  belt  of  calms  shifts  northerly  and  southerly  with 
the  vertical  sun.  It  separates  the  trade-winds  into  a  northern 
belt  and  a  southern  belt. 

139.  Causes  of  Change  in  Direction  of  Upper  Currents. — 
The  upper  air,  blowing  northerly  or  southerly  from  the  Equator, 
is  constantly  arriving  at  latitudes  having  a  less  velocity  of  rotation, 
and  hence  turns  easterly — becoming  southwest  winds  north  of  the 
Equator,  and  northwest  winds  south  of  the  Equator. 

140.  Winds  of  the  Temperate  Zones — Anti-Trades. — The" 
upper  currents  of  tropical  regions  become  the  principal  winds  of 
the  Temperate  Zones.  They  become  sufficiently  cooled,  and  con- 
sequently heavier,  on  reaching  the  latitude  of  30°,  to  sink  to  the 
earth's  surface  and  struggle  with  the  polar  winds  for  the  mastery.' 
Over  the  oceans  of  the  Temperate  Zones  these  winds  from  equato- 
rial regions  prevail,  and  as  they  are  nearly  opposite  the  trade-winds 
in  direction,  the}'  are  called  anti-trades. 

In  the  North  Temperate  Zone  the  anti-trades  are  southwest 
winds,  and  in  the  South  Temperate  Zone  they  are  northwest  winds. 


141.  Variable  Winds. — The  Temperate  Zones  of  continents 
are  zones  of  variable  winds,  as  local  causes,  elevations,  season  of 
the  year,  etc.,  determine  which  shall  prevail,  the  anti-trades  or  the 
polar  winds. 

142.  Winds  of  the  Frigid  Zones. — The  winds  of  Frigid  Zones 
are  of  but  little  importance. 

143.  Monsoons. — In  the  North  Indian  Ocean,  and  in  other 
places  similarly  situated,  the  winds  blow  in  opposite  directions  at 
diflFerent  seasons  of  the  year.  Such  winds  are  called  monsoons. 
In  July  when  the  sun's  vertical  rays  fall  far  north,  there  is  low 
pressure  over  Hindoostan;  hence,  the  summer  monsoon  blows  from 
the  southwest.  In  the  winter  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  when 
the  vertical  rays  fall  south  of  the  Equator,  the  low-pressure  area 
is  in  the  southern  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  monsoon  blows  from  the 
northeast.     (See  direction  of  arrows  on  Barometric  Map. ) 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wind  blows  from  B  toward  A,  at  the  end  of  the  hour  it  would 
have  reached  A',  loo  miles  east  of  A,  and  would  have  taken  a  northeasterly  path. 

In  the  Northern  Hemisphere  winds  blowing  either  toward  or  from  the  Equator  are 
turned  to  the  right  by  the  earth's  rotation;  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  they  are  turned 
toward  the  left. 

2.  A  belt  of  calms  occurs  in  the  region  of  each  tropic,  due  to  the  descending  air  in  that 
latitude. 


24 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


144.  Land-  and  Sea-Breezes.— A  daily  change  in  the  direction 
of  the  wind  occurs  along  all  sea-coasts,  because  the  sea  is  wanner 
than  the  land  at  night,  and  cooler  than  the  land  by  day.  Hence, 
"land-breezes"  blow  toward  the  sea  in  the  forenoon,  and  "sea- 
breezes  "  blow  toward  the  land  in  the  afternoon.' 

145.  Storms. — A  violent  wind,  usually  accompanied  by  rain, 
hail,  or  snow,  is  called  a  storm.  A  storm- wind  is  generally  a  part 
of  a  great,  whirling  wind  called  a  cyclone,  often  several  hundred 
miles  in  diameter.  Cyclones  are  caused  by  the  inrush  of  air  from 
all  sides  toward  an  area  of  low  pressure.  Air  flowing  in  from  the 
north  is  turned  westerly,  and  that  from  the  south  easterly;  and,  in 
consequence,  a  whirling  motion  results.  The  direction  of  the  whirl 
is  opposite  to  the  motion  of  the  hands  of  a  watch  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  and  the  reverse  in  the  Southern. 

Besides  the  whirling  motion,  cyclones 
have  a  forward  motion  of  several  hun- 
dred miles  daily  in  the  direction  of  the 
prevaihng  winds — westerly  in  the  Torrid 
Zone,  and  easterly  in  the  Temperate 
Zones.  Nearly  all  rain,  hail,  snow,  and 
thunder  storms  occur  during  the  passage 
of  a  cj'clone. 

146.  Tornadoes,  Hurricanes,  and 
Typhoons. — Small  and  exceedingly 
violent  cyclones,'  due  to  local  causes  and  of  only  a  few  hours' 
duration,  are  called  tornadoes,  hurricanes,  and  typhoons.  They 
are  especially  frequent  in  the  West  Indies,  East  Indies,  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 

QUnSTIONS. 

Air  Pressure. — Why  does  air  exert  pressure?  How  much  pressure  does  air 
exert  at  the  sea-level?  How  high  a  colunm  of  mercury  has  the  same  weight? 
What  effect  has  moisture  upon  the  pressure  of  the  air?    Heat?    Altitude? 

The  Barometer. — Perform,  if  practicable,  the  experiment  described  in 
Sec.  132.  What  is  a  barometer?  What  is  meant  by  barometric  pressure? 
By  low  barometer?    By  high  barometer? 

Wind. — What  is  wind?     How  is  it  caused? 

Why  is  the  Torrid  Zone  a  zone  of  low  pressure?  Why  do  winds  blow 
toward  the  Equator? 

What  effect  has  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon  the  direction  of  winds 
blowing  toward  the  Equator?     Blowing  from  the  Equator? 

What  are  the  trade-winds?  The  anti-trades?  Why  are  anti-trade-winds 
southwest  winds  north  of  the  Equator  and  northwest  winds  south  of  the 
Equator? 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  equatorial  belt  of  calms?  Of  the  tropical  calm 
belts?  What  winds  prevail  in  the  Torrid  Zone?  In  the  Temperate  Zones 
over  the  oceans?     Over  the  continents? 

What  are  monsoons?  Explain  how  the  monsoons  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
are  caused. 

Explain  land-  and  sea-breezes. 

Storms. — ^What  is  a  storm?  A  cyclone?  How  is  a  cyclone  caused?  In 
what  direction  do  cyclones  whirl  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere?  In  what 
direction  do  they  travel  in  the  Torrid  Zone?  In  what  direction  do  they 
travel  in  the  Temperate  Zones?     Can  you  tell  why  in  each  case? 

What  are  tornadoes?    Name  and  locate  three  regions  where  they  occur. 

Thought  Questions. — If  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  a  square  inch,  when 
the  mercurj'  in  the  barometer  stands  at  30  inches,  is  15  pounds,  what  is  it 
when  the  mercury  stands  at  20  inches?  At  15  inches?  When  the  air  has  a 
pressure  of  10  pounds  per  square  inch,  how  high  does  the  mercury  stand  in 
the  barometer?  If  the  pressure  is  12  pounds?  8  pounds?  When  the  mer- 
cury rises  in  the  barometer  tube,  does  it  show  an  increase  or  a  decrease  in 
the  pressure  of  the  air?  When  it  falls?  If  air  at  60°  temperature  has  a 
pressure  of  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  what  would  be  the  effect  upon  the 
height  of  the  mercury  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  should  rise?  If  it  should 
fall?    If  there  is  no  change  of  temperature  nor  of  position  of  the  barometer, 

1.  In  like  manner  a  daily  change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  may  be  seen  on  an  eastern 
mountain-slope,  which  becomes  highly  heated  every  forenoon,  and  is.  hence,  at  that  time 
an  area  of  low  pressure,  while  after  noonday  it  cools  off  rapidly,  and  becomes  an  area  of 
high  pressure.  *wimiiiian/:  the  side  from  which  the  wind  blow& 


and  the  mercury  rises,  what  does  that  indicate  in  regard  to  the  moisture  in 
the  air?  If  the  mercury  falls?  Would  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  rise  01 
fall  just  before  a  rain?  Why?  In  ascending  a  mountain?  Why?  If  the 
mercury  in  the  barometer  tube  on  a  mountain  top  stands  at  15  inches,  what 
is  the  height  of  the  mountain? 

MAP  QUESTIONS. — ^What  do  the  figures  on  the  maps  of  barometric 
pressure  indicate?  The  light  pink  spots?  The  white  spots?  What  do  the 
arrows  on  these  maps  indicate? 

Thought  Questions. — Observe  that  there  is  a  constant  low-pressure  area 
in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean.  Does  that  show  the  temperature  there  to  be 
high  or  low  for  that  latitude?  Why  is  the  air  pressure  low  there?  Do  the 
winds  approaching  this  area  from  the  south  turn  easterly  or  westerly? 
Why?  (See  Sec.  139.)  Why  do  winds  approaching  the  low-pressure  area 
in  Africa  from  the  south  turn  westerly?     (See  Sec.  136.) 

Why  do  the  low-pressure  areas  that  occur  in  July  change  to  high-pressure 
areas  in  January?  Do  changes  from  low  pressure  to  high,  or  from  high  to 
low,  occur  more  commonly  on  land-  or  on  water-areas?  Why?  (See  Sees. 
115,  116.) 

Do  cyclones  originate  in  low-pressure  areas  or  high-pressure  areas? 
When  are  cyclones  more  likely  to  originate  in  the  interior  of  North  Amer- 
ica— in  January  or  July? 

Are  the  trade-  and  anti-trade-winds  more  constant  over  large  bodies  of 
land  or  over  large  bodies  of  water? 

In  sailing  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  which  wind-zone  should  a  ship 
captain  seek,  that  of  the  trade-winds  or  that  of  the  anti-trades?  Which  in 
sailing  from  America  to  Europe? 

ne  following  questions  may  be  omitted  until  taking,  up  the  study  of  the 
several  continents  to  which  they  relate: 

North  America. — Is  the  central  part  of  North  America  an  area  of  low 
pressure  or  of  high  pressure  in  July?    In  January? 

Compare  the  pressure  over  the  continent  with  that  over  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean  in  January.  In  July.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference?  (See 
Sees.  115,  116.)  Is  most  of  North  America  in  the  zone  of  trade-winds  or  in 
that  of  the  anti-trades?  What  is  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  easterly  or  westerly?  Why?  What  is  the 
prevailing  direction  in  middle  latitudes?  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  July? 
In  the  interior  of  the  continent  in  January?  Are  the  anti-trade-winds  on 
the  Pacific  coast  more  constant  throughout  the  year  toward  the  north  or 
toward  the  south? 

South  America. — Does  the  greater  portion  of  South  America  lie  in  the 
zone  of  trade-winds  or  of  anti-trades?  In  what  part  of  South  America  do 
the  trade-winds  prevail?  The  anti-trades?  Over  what  ocean  does  each 
blow  before  reaching  South  America?  Over  what  countries  does  each  blow? 
Observe  that  a  low-pressure  area  exists  in  South  America  in  January.  In 
what  thermal  zone  does  it  occur?  What  wind  prevails  in  that  region  in 
July?     Can  you  tell  why? 

Eurasia. — Is  most  of  Eurasia  in  the  zone  of  trade-winds  or  of  anti-trades? 
Where  are  the  anti-trades  most  constant  throughout  the  year,  on  the  coast 
of  Europe  or  in  the  interior  of  Asia?  From  what  ocean  do  the  anti-trades 
of  Eurasia  come?  In  what  thermal  zone  is  southeastern  Asia  in  July? 
(See  Map  of  Isotherms.)  What  winds  prevail  there  then?  Is  southern  Asia 
an  area  of  low  pressure  or  of  high  pressure  in  July?  Why?  At  that  season 
of  the  year  in  what  direction  do  the  winds  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  blow?  Why?  In  what  direction  do  they  blow  in  January?  Why? 
Is  Asia  an  area  of  low  pressure  or  of  high  pressure  at  that  time? 

Africa. — Is  most  of  Africa  in  the  zone  of  trade-winds  or  of  anti-trades?  In 
what  wind-zone  is  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  in  Jul)'?  (See  Map  of  Iso- 
therms.) WTiy?  In  January?  Why?  In  what  wind-zone  is  South  Africa? 
Central  Africa?  Are  the  trade-winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean  south  of  the 
Equator  constant  or  inconstant  in  their  direction  throughout  the  year? 
North  of  the  Equator?  What  name  is  given  to  the  winds  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Indian  Ocean?  (See  Sec.  143.)  In  what  direction  do  they  blow 
in  January?  Why?  In  July?  Why?  Is  eastern  Africa  a  region  of  low 
pressure  or  of  high  pressure  in  January?    Why? 

Oceania. — Is  the  interior  of  Australia  an  area  of  low  pressure  or  of  high 
pressure  in  January?  What  is  the  direction  of  the  winds  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Australia  at  that  time?  Why?  On  the  southern  coast.  Why? 
In  what  wind-zone  is  most  of  Oceania?  Which  side  of  the  islands,  the 
eastern  or  western,  is  the  windward*  side? 

2.  By  the  term  "<^clone,"  as  commonly  used,  is  generally  meant  a  tornado  or  hurricane; 
but  the  word  more  appropriately  applies  to  those  greater  whirling  storms  that  often  last 
for  several  days,  and  cross  continents  and  oceans  before  they  disappear,  but  which  are  not 
destructive,  like  the  tornado  or  the  hurricane. 


CLIMATE. 


25 


RAIN,  SNOW,  FOG,  CI^OUDS,  ETC. 

147.  Invisible  Moisture  in  the  Air. — Vapor  of  water  is  contin- 
ually rising  into  the  air  from  all  parts  of  the  land-  and  water-surface 
of  the  earth.  This  is  due  to  its  lightness.  Being  but  half  as  heavy 
as  air,  it  is  easily  lifted  and  carried  about  by  the  currents  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  amount  of  vapor  in  the  air  is  greatest  over  bodies 
of  water  in  warm  climates,  and  least  over  desert  regions.' 

148.  Fog  and  Clouds.  —  The  vapor  in  the  air  is  ordinarily 
invisible,  but,  under  certain  conditions,  it  becomes  visible,  and 


150.  Distribution  of  Vapor.— The  moist  air  over  oceans  is 
carried  to  continents  by  the  aid  of  winds,  and  produces  rain  only 
when  the  temperature  is  lowered  by  (i)  coming  in  conilict  with 
cooler  winds,  (2)  being  carried  to  higher  altitudes,  or  (3)  to 
higher  latitudes.* 

151.  Effect  of  Mountains  on  Moisture.  —  Low  mountain- 
ranges  hft  winds  to  higher  altitudes,  and  thereby  cause  rainfall,  not 
only  upon  the  mountains,  but  upon  the  country  beyond.  High 
mountains  lift  winds  to  so  great  an  elevation  as  to  rob  them  of 

all  their  moisture,  and  pass  them  on  as  dry  winds. 
Hence,  high  plateaus  are  rainless  regions. 

152.  Effect  of  Cold  Winds.— Polar  or  other 
cold  winds,  entering  warmer  latitudes,  do  not 
precipitate  their  own  vapor.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  become  warmer  and  are  capable  of  holding 
more  moisture  than  before.  They  cause  rain, 
however,  by  cooling  the  warm  air  they  enter  until 
it  passes  the  saturation  point,  when  its  moisture 
is  precipitated. 

153.  Effect  of  Trade- Winds  and  of  Anti- 
Trade-Winds. — The  northeast  and  the  south- 
east trade-winds  blow  across  the  continents  from 
east  to  west,  and,  being  cooled  on  their  passage 


MAPS  OK    BAROMETRIC    PRESSURE.^ 

then  forms  fog,  clouds,  dew,  rain,  hail,  frost,  or 
snow.  Warm  air  can  hold  more  of  this  invisible 
vapor  than  cold  air  can.  At  any  given  temper- 
ature air  can  hold  only  a  certain  amount  of 
invisible  vapor,  and  when  that  amount  is  present 
the  air  is  said  to  be  saturated,  or  at  the  satura- 
tion point;  just  as  a  sponge  or  piece  of  cloth  is 
saturated  when  it  is  so  wet  that  it  can  take  up  no 
more  water. 

If  saturated  air  be  heated  to  a  higher  temper- 
ature, it  can  take  up  more  vapor;  but  if  it  be 
cooled  a  little,  it  cannot  hold  all  of  its  vapor,  and 
some  of  it  condenses;  that  is,  becomes  visible 
moisture,  made  up  of  minute  bubbles  of  water 
floating  in  the  air.  If  very  near  the  surface,  such  visible  moisture 
is  called  fog;  if  several  hundred  feet  above  the  earth,  clouds. 
Persons  upon  mountain  tops  frequently  iind  fogs  at  their  feet 
cutting  off  a  view  of  the  valley  below.  To  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  these  fogs  are  clouds  floating  about  the  mountain  summits. 

149.  Rain,  Snow,  and  Dew. — If  the  air  be  cooled  sufficiently, 
enough  of  its  vapor  becomes  condensed  to  form  drops  of  water, 
which  fall  to  the  earth  as  rain;  or  if  cooled  below  the  freezing  point 
delicate  crystals  of  ice  are  formed,  which  fall  as  snow  or  hail.  In 
many  localities  water  which  falls  as  rain  is  often  first  formed  as 
snow  at  high  elevations — a  snow-storm  over  mountain-peaks 
frequently  becoming  a  rain-storm  as  it  passes  through  the  warmer 
atmosphere  of  the  valley  below.  Vapor  condensed  and  precipitated 
from  the  air  upon  cool  bodies — such  as  grass  and  leaves — with 
which  it  comes  in  contact,  is  called  dew.     Frost  is  frozen  dew.' 

1.  Put  a  little  water  into  a  pan,  and  set  it  in  the  sun.  After  a  few  hours  the  water  will  all 
have  disappeared:  it  will  have  evaporated,  or  gone  into  the  air  as  invisible  vapor.  If  the 
water  be  heated  over  a  stove,  it  will  evaporate  more  rapidly;  if  kept  in  a  cool  p^ace,  it  will 
evaporate  more  slowly. 

2.  On  these  maps  the  figures  indicate  the  barometric  pressure  at  the  places  where  they 
occur.  The  bright  pink  spots  show  high-pressure  areas.  The  light  and  white  spots  show 
low-pressure  areas.    The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 

3.  Very  hot  vapor,  or  true  steam,  is  constantly  coming  out  of  the  spout  of  a  hot  tea-kettle, 
but  this  vapor  is  invisible  at  the  end  of  the  spout,  because  its  temperature  is  so  high  that 
the  saturation  point  is  not  reached.    At  a  short  distance  from  the  end  of  the  spout  the 


up  the  eastern  slopes,  precipitate  their  moisture  before  passing 
over  the  mountain  tops.  Hence,  in  tropical  regions  the  greatest 
rainfall  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  mountain-ma.sses;  but  in  the 
Temperate  Zones,  where  the  southwest  and  northwest  anti-trades 
prevail  over  the  oceans,  the  heaviest  rainfall  is  on  the  western 
slopes. 

QVnSTIONS. 

How  does  vapor  get  into  the  air?  What  is  meant  by  saturated  air? 
What  happens  when  air  passes  the  saturation  point?  Explain  how  invisible 
vapor  may  become  visible.  How  are  fog  and  clouds  formed?  What  is  the 
difference  between  fog  and  clouds?     Explain  how  rain  is  caused. 

How  is  the  moist  air  that  rises  over  oceans  carried  over  the  land?  Mention 
three  ways  in  which  moist  winds  become  cooled.  Why  are  high  plateaus 
rainless?  Is  the  heavier  rainfall  on  the  eastern  or  western  side  of  the  Andes 
Mountains  in  the  South  Temperate  Zone?  (See  Sec.  153.)  At  40°  south? 
Why  in  each  case?     (See  Sec.  153.) 

vapor  becomes  cooled  by  expansion  and  by  contact  with  the  cooler  air,  and  then  condenses 
into  visible  vapor,  also,  but  less  properly,  called  steam.  At  this  stage  it  may  be  compared 
to  cloud  or  fog,  and  if  the  escaping  steam  be  made  to  strike  against  a  cold  surface — as  a 
plate — it  condenses  into  drops  of  water,  which  may  be  compared  to  dew  formed  upon  the 
cold  surfaces  of  plants,  rocks,  etc. 

4.  As  air  rises  to  a  higher  elevation,  it  expands  to  occupy  greater  space,  and  is  thereby 
cooled.  This  can  be  illustrated  by  the  way  in  which  we  cool  hot  coffee,  by  blowing  upon 
it:  The  cheeks  are  filled  with  air,  which  is  slightly  compressed  and  forced  out  through  a 
small  opening.  As  it  escapes  into  the  outer  air,  it  becomes  so  cooled  by  expansion  that  it 
serves  to  cool  the  hot  cbfiee. 


26 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


MAP  QUESTIONS.— What  is  the  greatest  rainfall  represented  on  the 
map  by  white  areas?  By  the  different  shades  of  red?  What  is  the  least 
rainfall  represented  by  each  shade  of  red? 

In  what  zone  are  most  of  the  areas  of  heaviest  rainfall?  In  what  zones  do 
the  areas  of  light  rainfall  principally  lie?  Is  the  rainfall  principally  heavy 
or  is  it  light  on  land-areas  crossed  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer?  By  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn?  On  which  side  of  land-areas  between  40°  south  and  40°  north 
is  the  rainfall  heavier,  the  eastern  or  the  western?  Why?  On  which  side 
is  the  rainfall  heavier  in  latitudes  between  40°  and  70°?    Why? 

The  following  questions  may  be  omitted  until  taking  up  the  study  of  the 
several  continents  to  which  they  relate: 

North  America. — Where  is  the  heaviest  rainfall  along  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America?  Is  it  in  the  zone  of  trade-winds  or  of  anti-trades?  Is  it 
on  the  east  or  the  west  side  of  the  mountain-axis?    Why?     (See  Sec.  286.) 

Is  the  rainfall  heavier  at  Sitka  or  at  San  Francisco?    Is  the  rainfall  light 


or  heavy  in  the  Mackenzie  Basin?  On 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau?  Why 
in  each  case?  (See  Sees.  151  and  286.) 
Where  is  the  rainfall  heaviest  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America?  Id 
what  wind-zone?  On  which  side  of  the 
mountain-axis  is  the  heavier  rainfall 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America?  Why? 
(See  Sec.  286.) 

United  States.— Which  half  of  the 
United  States  has  the  more  abundant 
rainfall,  the  eastern  or  the  western? 
Why  has  California  less  rainfall  than 
Washington  has?  Is  the  rainfall  of  the 
Great  Basin  of  Utah  heavy  or  light? 
Why? 
What  winds  bring  rain  to  the  Gulf 
Jk    ^  I  *    *  -i  Plain?    What    winds    prevail    in    the 

\^r|f  ^^^ "      Mississippi    Valley   in    July  ?      From 

^      "  what  body   of   water   do   they  carry 

moisture?  Is  the  rainfall  of  southern 
Alaska  heavy  or  light?  Why?  (See 
Barometric  Map.) 

South  America.  —  Is  the  heaviei 
rainfall  in  the  southern  part  of  South 
America  on  the  eastern  or  western 
side  of  the  mountains?  Why?  Why 
is  the  rainfall  light  in  Argentine  Re- 
public? Which  has  the  heavier  rainfall, 
Patagonia  or  the  La  Plata  Basin?  Why? 
Upon  which  side  of  the  Andes  is  the 
rainfall  heavier  in  the  latitudes  of  the  Amazon  Basin?  Why?  Is  the 
rainfall  of  the  Orinoco  Basin  heavy  or  light?  Why?  Why  is  the  rainfall 
heavier  along  the  coast  of  Brazil  than  in  the  interior? 

Eurasia. — Is  the  rainfall  heavy  or  light  in  the  central  part  of  Asia?  Why? 
Why  is  the  rainfall  heavier  on  the  western  side  of  Scandinavia  and  Spain? 
What  winds  bring  moisture  to  southeastern  Asia?  To  southwestern  Hin- 
doostan?    (See  Sec.  143.) 

Africa. — Is  the  rainfall  of  tropical  Africa  heavy  or  light?  Why?  In  pass- 
ing from  the  Equator  toward  the  tropics  in  Africa,  does  the  rainfall  increase 
or  decrease?  Do  the  anti-trade-winds  become  warmer  or  cooler  over  the 
Sahara?     Will  they  take  up  or  precipitate  moisture? 

Oceania. — In  what  thermal  zone  is  Australia  during  most  of  the  year?  In 
what  wind-zone?  Where  is  the  rainfall  heavier,  in  the  east  or  in  the  west? 
Why? 

Have  the  islands  of  Oceania  much  or  little  rainfall? 


OCEAN-  C  URRENTS.' 

1 54.  The  ocean,  like  the  air,  is  never  at  rest.  Due  to  its  weight, 
water,  like  air,  is  exerting  a  downward  pressure;  and  this  downward 
pressure  becomes  pressure  in  all  directions.  Cold  .sea-water  is 
heavier  than  the  same  bulk  of  warm  sea-water,  and  hence  exerts 
gfreater  pressure;  therefore,  just  as  in  the  case  of  cold  and  warm  air, 
cold  ocean-water  flows  toward  and  under  warmer  ocean-water, 
causing  it  to  rise  at  the  surface. 

Also,  as  in  the  case  of  the  air-currents,  the  ocean-currents  change 
their  direction  because  of  the  earth's  rotation — the  currents  that 
flow  from  equatorial  regions  toward  the  poles  turning  easterly,  and 
those  approaching  equatorial  regions  turning  westerly.  (See  Sees. 
135,  I36>  I37-) 

155.  Importance  of  Ocean-Currents. — The  ocean-currents 
thus  caused  are  of  great  importance,  as  they  carry  Arctic  cold  into 
tropical  regions,  and  tropical  heat  toward  the  poles,  thus  greatly 
modifying  the  climate  of  the  coasts  past  which  they  flow  by  giving 
coolness  to  the  breezes  of  the  Torrid  Zone  and  tempering  the 
severity  of  the  cold  in  northern  lands. 

1.  Before  reading  what  is  said  of  ooean-onrrents,  find  on  tbe  proper  maps  tbe  following: 
Cape  St.  Roque;  British  Isles;  Iceland;  Spain. 

2.  This  current  Is  called  the  Gulf-Stream,  because  it  wasibrmerly  supposed  to  enter  and 


156.  Equatorial  Currents.  —  The  warm  water  of  tropical 
oceans  is  forced  upward  by  colder  water  from  higher  latitudes; 
and  the  two  belts  of  trade-winds  carry  the  warm  surface-water 
westerly  in  two  great  currents — the  North  Equatorial  Current 
and  the  South  Equatorial  Current — in  each  of  the  three  great 
oceans:  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and  the  Indian.  (See  Map  of 
Ocean-Currents.) 

157.  The  Atlantic  Equatorial  Currents. — The  South  Equa- 
torial Current  of  the  Atlantic  is  divided  by  Cape  St.  Roque,  on 
the  east  coast  of  South  America. 

One  branch,  the  Brazilian  Current,  flows  southeasterly  until 
like  winds  blowing  from  the  Equator  toward  the  poles,  it  is 
turned  easterly  by  reaching  latitudes  that  have  less  easterly 
velocitj-  of  rotation  than  itself. 

The  other  branch  flows  northwesterly,  and  joins  the  North 
Equatorial  Current  in  the  region  of  the  West  Indies,  to  form  the 
Gulf-Stream} 

158.  The  Gulf-Stream. — This  well-marked  warm  current 
flows  northeasterly  along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  to 

make  the  circuit*  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  before  passing  Florida;  but  later  investigations 
have  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case. 
•  circuit:  journey  round  the  border  of, 


CLIMATE. 


27 


n  4) 

o  ■S 

o  « 

w 

«  '3 

rt    D    y  ^ 

U  Ph  iH  « 


t  «  o  a 

!  S^  p^  1: 

.  e  «;  ii 

I  V  J3  to 

■  §  S  = 


o  a 


o 

3 


(U 

O 


-4-)       Q 


O    rt 

^   -13 


-^^ 


3 

w 


3 


■^  S  « 


f 

a 

o 

3 


IS        - 


O     O 


^   I 


51 

O    3 


•^  i3  ^j 

•  '^-  £f 

♦J  4j  3 

3  o-  S 

O  o  t! 

•=^  b  :S 

so  3  *^ 

3  W  (U 

O  c/1     - 

iH  a  tj  *j 


a  "" 


*j    o    3 


a  3 
3  o 
<J  M 

I! 


3 


CO    ™ 


5  a 


4-) 

3 
o 
p. 

3 


y^    en    pi   ^^     ij    ,,   -*-< 


"I 

o  -^ 


ti  s<  s 


in     3 
U 


a 
o 

3    o    ^ 

a  Z  ^ 


(U  M      '^ 

S  S  " 

o  V.    ^, 

"  °   S 

"30 

S  «  I 

^  a 

o  P< 


3 
w 


a  3: 
1-  "2 


OJ 


a 

^" 
?,  « 

u    en 

3    0! 


(U 


■a 


U    4)     CD    ►> 

■S  «  t;  a  !> 


=^1 


.^ij        (D      -r-l       .^ 


a  A< 


<;  a 


d  o 
<u  a. 

Ph    3 


oj  a  'v' 

"   -"  'in 
a  ^<- 

ca   a   o 
a   o  jj 

:&!§ 


as 
a  ° 

o    <u 
CJ5 


-a  -"  ii 

°  s  a 

a  "a  o 

-a  ^  0) 


a  43 


a  ^     I  ^ 


a*  a  , 
■"  a  S 
hn  B<  -H 


<u 


.»  •— >  a  a 

g  -a  s  a 

S  fl  Ji  u3 

,2.  a   o  o 


a 
„   o 

U     P4 

a  oj 

M     « 
^  J3 


3     (U 


lu  ^    >^  a 


■J3   a 


fe   a 

■^  ja 

o 

"u  a 

V'   a 

5  M 


8 


5-s  a-3 


3*5 

'p.  a  g 


.•^  ja   o 


^   o  ■ 


a  iT 


^   a 


■w  ja 

■M.SP 

a  ja 


t 


a* 
•S 


a  a 

o  ^ 


^.  ^.     •     en 

u  13  ^  t: 


OJ 


ja  a  („ 

a  3  o 

a    o    ^ 

CO      ^    ^     S 

'='       a  "s 
.2  >;^ 


-^      j; 


cfl     M     rt    - 
nj     <U    S  '^ 


e 


OJ 


Is 

'■3 


O 
I 

O 

h 
tn 

HI 

D 
c 

0, 

<: 


0-.    rt 


H  -a 
a 


P. 

•a^ 

3 

a  ^. 

a   a 
a  ^ 

a   a 

a  a 
>-  .1 

oj  M 
J  '^ 


)-.  ^ 


|a5  P 
"  b  !8  o 


8    5; 


Id  a 

,a  -*-»  a 

■^  a  o 

a  K  C 

-  3  a 

a  u  ^ 

t!  2  ja 

?  8s 

a  a  Iz; 

o  o  o 


•-1      Vl      CO 

'a    0)    (U 

a   a   „ 


a 


iSts  ° 


f   S  -e 


•s^J^  £  S  S        § 


^  p.  <^ 
\  ^^ 

o    a  Ph 

ij  ^  " 

5  ^  iJ 
°       1 

2  '^a  a 


§1  ag 

o   3   a  t? 
a   fe  w  13 

^  CO    3    * 
<1         O  "« 

■S        a 
a   a   v   g 

a  ^  te  S 
<u  a  f^  a 


o    o 
cj    a 

af^ 

u 

M  -a 


5  o 


*j  a 
a  4) 

a  t 


<u 


^  -a 


4>    ^ 


^Bl 


a  o 
o 

o<  t! 
3  a 

«-§ 


about  40°  north  latitude,  thence  more  easterly  toward  the  British 
Isles,  and  divides  in  mid-ocean  into  two  branches.  The  northern 
branch  carries  warmth  northeasterly  to  the  British  Isles,  Norway, 
and  Iceland,  and  is  finally  lost  in  the  North  Atlantic.  The 
southern  branch  carries  heat  southerly  along  the  coast  of  Spain. 
On  reaching  equatorial  regions  it  is  turned  westerly  by  the  earth's 
rotation  and  the  trade-winds,  and  merges  into  the  North  Equatorial 
Current,  in  which  it  partly  originated. 


S 


to     ^ 
■e     £ 


•3    ^ 
9     0 

O        u 


■c    » 


u  "C  -e 


159.  Cold  Currents. — To  compensate  for  the  waters  flowing 
from  equatorial  to  polar  regions,  a  cold  return  current  flows  from 
the  polar  toward  tropical  regions.  As  it  approaches  the  Equator 
its  slower  velocity  of  rotation  causes  it  to  flow  westerly. 

160.  Labrador  Current.— In  the  North  Atlantic,  the  principal 
cold  current  is  the  Labrador  Current,  which  flows  close  inshore 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  as  far  south  as  latitude 
40°,  where  it  sinks  underneath  the  wanner  Gulf-Stream. 


28 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


9& 


60 


30 


90 


6i 


W 


av.'. 


-?t*- 


■%^??5^,^ 


.lis"-         3  ^=»~«\ 


%5;^,A„.^^kv1CkP' 


30' 


90* 


50" 


SO- 


SO" 


90f 


GENERAI.  OCBANIC  CIB.CULATION.I 


161.  The  Japan  Current. — In 
the  North  Pacific,  the  Japan  Current 
corresponds  to  the  Gulf-Stream  of  the 
Atlantic;  but  no  well-marked  polar 
current,  corresponding  to  the  Labra- 
dor Current  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America,  enters  the  Pacific 
through  Bering  Strait. 

162.  Currents  that  Change 
with  the  Wind. —  In  the  northern 
Indian  Ocean  the  currents  are  so 
strongly  afiected  by  the  winds  that 
they  change  their  direction  with  the 


monsoons,  and  flow  in  opposite  directions  at  diflerent  seasons — 
northeast  in  July  and  southwest  in  January.  (See  Map  of  Ocean- 
Currents.) 

The  currents  of  greatest  importance  to  the  world  are  those  of 
the  North  Pacific  and  North  Atlantic  oceans,  because  they  afiect 
the  climate  of  countries  occupied  by  the  most  highly  civilized 
nations  of  the  earth. 

QUESTIONS. 

Explain  why  polar  waters  flow  toward  and  beneath  equatorial  waters. 
Explain  how  the  equatorial  currents  are  produced.  Describe  the  South 
Equatorial  Current  of  the  Atlantic.  The  Brazilian  Current.  The  Gulf- 
Stream.  Why  does  the  Gulf-Stream  turn  easterly  as  it  flows  north?  What 
effect  does  the  Gulf-Stream  have  upon  the  temperature  of  the  North 
Atlantic?     Describe  the  Labrador  Current.     The  Japan  Ciirrent. 


THE  ORGANIC  WORLD. 


163.  Organic  Matter. —  Plants  and  animals,  together  with 
their  products,  make  up  the  organic  matter  of  the  world.  Organic 
matter  thus  comes  into  existence  through  the  growth  of  things 
that  live. 

Living  things  are  everywhere.  Land,  water,  and  air  teem  with 
life.  Neither  the  cold  of  Greenland's  ice-fields,  nor  the  heat  of 
Sahara's  sand,  can  destroy  all  life.  The  invisible  germs*  of  molds,' 
rust,*  mildews,  and  the  microscopic  organisms*  which  cause 
fermentation,  decay,  and  disease,  are  ever  floating  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

164.  How  Life  is  Su'stained.  —  Plants  live  upon  inorganic* 
substances  which  they  take  from  the  earth  and  the  air  or  water 
which  surrounds  them.  Animals  feed  upon  plants  or  other 
animals. 

Since  animals  depend  for  their  existence  upon  plants,  we  will 
first  consider  the 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PI, ANTS. 

165.  Abundance  of  Vegetation  Depends  upon  Climate. — 

Every  country  has  in  its  soil  and  atmosphere  ample  supplies  of 
all  the  kinds  of  food  required  by  plants  except  water.  This,  the 
chief  food  of  plants,  can  reach  the  greater  mass  of  vegetation  only 
in  the  form  of  rain.  Besides  food,  plants  require  heat  and  light. 
The  abundance  of  natural  vegetation,  then,  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  rain  and  the  intensity  of  the  sunshine;  in  other  words, 
upon  the  climate. 

166.  Effect  of  Much  and  Little  Rain  and  Heat.— Where  the 
rainfall  is  heavy,  and  the  temperature  like  that  of  our  summer 
weather,  vegetation  is  rank.  Where  there  is  little  rain,  even 
though  the  warmth  be  tropical,  we  find  the  sparse  vegetation  of 
a  desert.  Where  there  is  little  heat,  vegetation  will  not  follow  the 
most  abundant  moisture,  and  we  find  a  dreary  field  of  glacier-ice 
covered  with  snow,  made  perpetual  by  constant  renewal. 

167.  Where  Plants  are  Most  Abundant. — In  the  chapter 
on  climate,  we  learned  that  the  weather  is  hot  throughout  the  year 

1.  The  Gulf-Stream  and  the  other  currents  of  the  North  Atlantic  form  the  type  of  oceanic 
circulation,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  A  somewhat  similar  set  of  currents  is  repeated  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  in  the  northern  and  southern  halves  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  oceans. 

2.  The  mold  found  sometimes  on  bread  or  fruit,  when  examined  under  a  microscope,  is 
found  to  consist  of  small  plants. 

3.  The  declduouB  forests  of  southern  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States  present, 
successively,  during  the  year,  the  somber  brown  of  leafless  branches  above  the  winter 
snow,  the  tender  green  of  opening  buds  in  spring,  the  darker  green  of  summer  foliage, 
and  the  beautiful  hues  of  autumn  leaves.    Even  the  coniferous*  forests  undergo  seasonal 


on  the  plains  of  equatorial  regions,  and  that  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
there. 

Owing  to  this,  the  densest  vegetation  is  usually  found  on  the 
lowlands  of  the  tropical  belts.  The  forests  of  the  Amazon,  in 
South  America,  of  the  Congo,  in  Africa,  and  of  the  islands  southeast 
of  Asia,  are  the  most  luxuriant  in  the  world.  Since  there  is 
usually  the  most  vegetation  where  the  rainfall  is  heaviest,  a  rain 
map  shows  fairly  well  the  relative  amount  of  vegetation  in  difler- 
ent parts  of  the  world. 

168.  The  Nature  of  Vegetation  in  the  Tropics. — Though 
rain  and  heat  determine  the  quantity  of  vegetation  anywhere,  the 
general  character  of  plant-life  in  any  country  depends  upon  the 
extent  of  seasonal  variations  in  heat  and  moisture,  rather  than 
upon  the  average  temperature  and  rainfall.  Between  the  Tropics 
the  temperature  varies  but  little  from  day  to  day,  and  where  the 
rain  also  is  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  year,  the  lowlands 
are  covered  with  dense  forests  of  constantly  growing,  broad-leaved 
evergreens;  but  where  there  are  long  intervals  of  drought,  as  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Orinoco,  in  South  America,  all  vegetation  dies  to 
the  ground  during  the  hot,  dry  season.  Hence,  only  grasses  and 
other  herbs  grow  in  such  places. 

169.  Vegetation  Outside  of  the  Tropics. — As  the  distance 
from  the  Equator  increases  vegetation  changes  to  fit  the  seasons, 
which  gradually  become  more  contrasted  in  temperature  until,  in 
the  middle  latitudes,  the  hot  summers  are  followed  by  winters  so 
cold  that  all  vegetable  growth  ceases.  The  tender-leaved  trees  of 
the  tropics  first  give  place  to  trees  or  shrubs  like  laurel  and  man- 
zani'ta,  whose  tough,  leathery  leaves  can  withstand  the  frosts  of 
mild  winters.  Those,  in  turn,  are  mostly  displaced  by  trees  and 
shrubs  which  shed  all  their  leaves  upon  the  approach  of  winter. 
The  only  evergreens  of  the  middle  latitudes  are  cone-bearers,  like 
pine  and  cedar,  whose  needle-like  or  scale-like  leaves  can  resist 
great  cold.  At  the  close  of  summer  the  deciduous*  trees'  of  the 
temperate  and  cold  regions  form  winter  buds  with  which  to  begin 
the  next  season's  growth.     When  these  are  matured  and  seeds  are 

changes.  The  rapid  growth  of  early  summer  tips  each  branchlet  with  a  leafy  plume  of  a 
livelier  green  than  the  somber  hue  of  the  winter  foliage. 

*  rust:  a  dust-like  substance  that  grows  on  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  wheat  and  other  grains 
and  destroys  them.  germ:  the  starting  point  of  a  growth. 

microscopic  organisms:  tittle  living  things,  whether  plants  or  animals,  that  can  be  seen 
only  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope. 

inorganic  substances:  substances  that  do  not  pow  through  being  alive,  as  the  minerals 
and  air  and  water. 

deciduous  tries:  trees  that  shed  their  leaves  in  the  fall— deciduous  means  falling  ofiT,  not 
permanent.  coni/erous:  cone-bearing. 


\ 


THE    ORGANIC    WORLD. 


29 


ripened,  the  leaves,  which  have  taken  on  tints  of  yellow  and  red, 
neatly  cut  themselves  loose  from  the  twigs  whose  growth  began 
in  the  winter  buds  of  the  preceding  season. 

« 

170.  Vegetation  of  the  Frigid  Zone. — As  we  proceed  to 
higher  latitudes,  trees  become  fewer  and  smaller.  The  more  than 
one  hundred  kinds  which  make  up  the  forests  between  the  fortieth 
and  fiftieth  parallels  of  latitude  are  left  behind,  one  by  one,  till, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  in  North  America,  only 
poplar,  willow,  birch,  alder,  and  spruce  are  left.  These  trees  also 
grow  two  or  three  degrees  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  Siberia 
and  Lapland.  Mosses,  li'chens,*  and  a  few  flowering  herbs  grow 
along  the  Arctic  coasts  far  into  the  regions  of  perpetual  ice  and 


for  example,  between  the  plants  of  South  America  and  Australia 
than  there  is  between  those  of  North  America  and  Europe. 

174.  Man's  Work  in  the  Distribution  of  Plants.— The  kind 
of  vegetation  in  populous  regions  is  principally  controlled  by  man, 
who  cultivates  plants  which  are  very  different  from  the  native 
herbage.  For  example,  most  of  the  vegetation  of  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas  has  been  changed  since  i860.  The 
carpet  of  prairie-grass  has  been  replaced  by  wheat,  com,  and  other 
cereals.*  The  orchards  and  vineyards  of  California  clothe  the 
valleys  in  a  midsummer  coat  of  green,  in  place  of  the  natural  brown 
coat  of  dust  and  dry  herbs.  Forests  covering  hundreds  of  square 
miles  in  the  Atlantic  States  have  been  destroyed  by  ax  and  fire  to 
clear  fields  for  the  farmer's  crops.     Even  the  weeds,  which  take 


haUHa,  Calaviba,  and  afnt  ntAer  variaia 
t>f  Grape*  ar*  cuitivaUd/ornu  vftht  two  tpteiti 
knav*  04  F)m  Grape4:  Ktuiwm  qf  8otit\-*aA 
North  America 


CULTITATED  PLANTS  ORIGINATED . 


171.  Proportion  of  Forests  to  Herbage.— Far  less  than  half 
the  land-surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  with  forests.  Herbs,  which 
grow  each  year  from  seeds  or  underground  root-stocks,  cover  with 
a  low  growth  vast  areas  of  treeless  level  land  in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  These  plains  of  herbage  are  called,  in  North  America, 
prairies;  in  South  America,  llanos  ox  pampas ;  in  Russia,  steppes. 

Low,  woody  plants  like  the  sage-brush  of  America  and  the  heath 
of  Europe  also  cover  large  areas. 

172.  Distribution  of  the  Kinds  of  Plants.— While  the  general 
character  of  vegetation  is  largely  dependent  upon  clirnate,  the 
kinds  of  plants  inhabiting  two  countries  of  similar  climate  are 
often  very  different.  The  nearly  two  hundred  kinds  of  eucalyptus, 
which  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  forest  and  "  scrub"*  growth  of 
Australia,  are  none  of  them  natives  of  the  other  continents.  There 
are  no  pines,  oaks,  or  poplars  in  the  forests  south  of  the  Equator. 
The  oaks  and  pines  of  Europe  are  not  just  like  those  of  North 
America;  nor  are  those  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  the  same  as  the 
species  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

173.  Distribution  of  Kinds  Affected  by  Natural  Causes. — 

Natural  barriers  to  the  transportation  of  seeds,  such  as  bodies  of 
water,  lofty  mountains,  or  rainless  districts,  separate  regions  whose 
plants  differ  in  kind.  This  difference  is  greatest  where  the  natural 
distribution  of  seeds  is  most  obstructed.     There  is  more  difference, 

1.  Man  lias  also  changed  the  nature  of  most  cultivated  plants.  The  wild  cabbage  does  not 
form  a  head.  Wild  parsnip  is  poisonous.  Wild  beets  have  slender  roots,  which  contain 
no  sugar.  Perhaps  some  of  our  cultivated  plants  have  been  saved  from  extinction  by  man. 
Wheat  and  Indian  corn,  for  example,  are  not  known  to  exist  in  a  wild  state. 


possession  of  uncultivated  ground,  and  crowd  the  crops  of  the 
shiftless,  are  mostly  not  natives,  but  have  been  brought  from  other 
countries.' 

175.  Oceanic  Plants.  —  Large  areas  in  mid-ocean,  called 
sargasso  seas,  are  covered  with  floating  sea-weeds.  Sea-weeds 
are  also  abundant  on  most  coasts.  A  few  coast  species,  as  Irish 
moss,  are  used  for  food. 

DISTRIBUTION  OP  LAND  ANIMAIS. 

176.  Animals  of  the  Tropics. — The  abundance  and  char- 
acter of  animal  life  depend  chiefly  upon  climate  and  the  kind  of 
vegetation.  Large  reptiles,  such  as  alligators,  crocodiles,  and 
boa-constrictors,  abound  in  the  tropics,  where  the  forests  are  full 
of  noisy  monkeys,  harsh-voiced  birds  of  beautiful  plumage,  and 
insects  of  rich  hues. 

177.  Animals  of  the  Temperate  Zones. — As  we  approach 
the  middle  latitudes,  reptiles  decrease  in  size  and  numbers;  wolves, 
bears,  and  deer  become  common;  squirrels  take  the  place  of 
monkeys;  song  birds  of  plain  plumage,  instead  of  gaudy  parrots 
and  cockatoos,  break  the  silence  of  forests,  where  honey  bees  are 
more  common  than  butterflies. 

178.  Arctic  Animals. — As  we  approach  the  Arctic  regions, 
fur-bearing  animals  abound.    Otter  and  beaver  frequent  the  water- 

*  lichens:  irregular-shaped  patches,  usually  of  greenish  or  yellowish  color,  found  on  rocks 
and  trees  and  sometimes  improperly  called  rock-moss  or  tree-moss. 
scrub:  dwarfed,  stunted. 
cereals:  grains  used  for  food,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  rice,  etc 


30 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


courses;  foxes,  martins,  and  ermine  glide  through  the  silent 
woods,  and  finally,  beyond  the  range  of  the  musk-ox  and  reindeer, 
along  the  ice-fringed  coast  of  the  polar  seas,  we  find  the  white 
bear  and  the  ^i'der-duck. 

179.  Distribution  of  Kinds  of  Animals. — The  kinds,  or 
species,  of  animals  are  kept  from  spreading  over  the  earth  by  the 
same  natural  barriers  which  limit  the  range  of  plants.  The  animals 
of  North  America,  Europe,  and  Siberia  are  so  much  alike  that  the 
popular  names  of  those  best  known  in  one  of  these  regions  are 
applied  to  most  of  the  familiar  species  in  each  of  the  other  regions. 
But  none  of  these  common  animals,  such  as  deer,  beavers,  rabbits, 
hare,  squirrels,  wolves,  foxes,  cats,  bears,  robins,  crows,  grouse,  or 
quail,  are  natives  of  Australia;  nor  are  these  animals  common  in 
South  America  or  Africa. 

180.  Man's  Influence  in  the  Distribution  of  Animals. — As 

cultivated  plants  displace  native  vegetation,  so  domestic  animals 
increase  in  numbers  and  wild  animals  decrease  as  the  world  comes 
more  and  more  under  the  dominion  of  man.' 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  OCEANIC  ANIMAI,S. 

181.  Near  the  Coast-Line  in  the  Tropics. — The  fixed,  or 
sluggish,  animals  inhabiting  the  shallow  water  of  tropical  sea-coasts, 
are  marked  by  the  same  ejuTserant*  growth  and  brilliant  coloring 
that  characterize  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  adjacent  land.  In 
their  brilliant  hues  coral  polyps  mimic  flowers;  and  the  polished 
shells  of  mollusks  rival,  in  beauty  of  color,  the  plumage  of  birds. 

•  182.  Near  the  Coast-Line  of  Temperate  Regions. — Beyond 
the  torrid  belt  corals  disappear;  giant  mollusks,*  whose  shells 
weigh  several  hundred  pounds,  give  way  to  ordinary  clams  and 
oysters,  and  the  numerous  colored  shells  are  replaced  by  brown 
periwinkles.* 

183.  Deep-Sea  Animals. — The  little  known  life  of  the  ocean 
depths  is  probably  nearly  the  same  in  all  latitudes,  since,  a  few 
hundred  feet  below  the  surface,  an  uniformly  low  temperature 
prevails  from  the  Equator  to  the  polar  circles. 

184.  Surface  Animals. — The  active  animals,  which  swim  on 
or  near  the  surface,  being  less  confined  by  natural  barriers,  have  a 
greater  range  than  land  animals;  but  temperature  limits  the  sperm- 
whale,*  flying-fish,  and  sharks  to  tropical  or  sub-tropical  seas.  In 
the  cool,  shallow  water  of  middle  latitudes,  codfish,  mackerel, 
herring,  and  other  food-fish  abound.  The  right-whale*  and  fur- 
bearing  seals  are  at  home  in  the  polar  seas.' 

WORK  OF  PI^ANTS  IN  BUILDING  THE  EARTH. 

185.  Peat-forming  Plants. — There  are  many  swamps  in  the 
northern  portions  of  America,  Europe,  and  Asia  in  which  mosses, 
rushes,  and  other  plants  have  been  growing  for  hundreds  of  years. 
The  growth  of  each  season  sinks  beneath  the  water,  where  it  slowly 
becomes  a  compact  mass  called  peat,  which  is  used  for  fuel. 

About  one  tenth  of  Ireland  is  covered  with  bogs,  in  which  the 

1.  Few,  If  any,  species  of  animals  or  plants,  however,  have  become  extinct  by  man's 
agency  alone;  and  he  has  never  succeeded  in  extirpating*  a  single  weed  or  animal  pest. 
Indeed,  many  of  those  which  he  fights  most  persistently,  are  helped  more  by  the  conditions 
which  his  presence  supplies,  than  they  are  injured  by  his  warfare.  Rats  and  mice,  fbr 
example,  are  the  unwelcome  companions  of  man  in  all  his  migrations;  while  house  flies 
are  his  unbidden,  though  well-fed,  guests. 

2.  Whales  are  by  far  the  largest  of  animals.  A  large  whale  weighs  as  much  as  fifty 
elephants. 

3.  In  this  State  a  rush,  called  tuU,  covers  large  areas  with  an  imperfect  peat,  or  muck,  in 
which  the  vegetable  matter  is  mixed  with  a  sediment  of  fine  clay.  Similar  formations  are 
found  in  the  deltas  of  rivers  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  the  lagoons*  and  mangrove 
swamps  of  sea-coasts. 

The  polishing  earths  sold  under  the  names  Tripoli  powder,  electro-silicon,  calustro,  etc., 
are  composed  of  the  silicious*  skeletons  of  microscopic  plants  called  Ji'a  toms.  These  plants 
are  now  forming  extensive  deposits  in  some  parts  of  the  ocedn. 

Bog-iron  ore  is  formed  by  the  agency  of  plant-life.  Some  geologists  think  that  all  the 
iron  ores  of  the  world  were  so  formed. 


peat-beds  are  from  2  or  3,  to  20  or  30,  feet  in  depth.  One  of  these 
bogs  has  an  area  of  270  square  miles,  and  an  average  depth  of  25 
feet. 

• 

186.  Coal-forming  Plants.— The  greatest  geological  work  of 
plants  was  begun,  not  hundreds  of  years  ago,  but  ages  ago,  when 
the  morasses*  of  continental  borders  and  inland  sea-coasts  sup- 
ported a  rank  growth  of  plants  similar  to  the  mosses,  ferns,  and 
rushes  of  this  age,  but  very  much  larger,  and  nourished  by  an 
atmosphere  probably  richer  in  the  plant-foods — carbon-dioxide  and 
water — as  well  as  wanner,  than  the  air  which  now  feeds  the  peat- 
forming  plants  of  the  same  localities.  These  peat-bogs  of  former 
ages  have  become  changed  into  anthracite*  and  bituminous*  coals, 
whose  beds,  often  many  feet  in  thickness,  underlie  areas  in  North 
America  alone,  which,  taken  together,  exceed  the  area  of  California 
and  Nevada.' 

WORK  OF  ANIMALS  IN  BUILDING  THE  EARTH. 

187.  Limestone-,  Marble-,  and  Chalk-Builders.— The  ocean 
is  the  home  of  rock-making  animals.  Coral  polyps  built  reefs, 
and  mollusks  formed  beds  of  shells  long  before  the  higher  animals 
came  into  existence.  Chalk-making  foraminifers*  swarmed  in  the 
ancient  ocean;  and  then,  as  now,  their  microscopic  shells  drifted 
in  banks  as  fine  sand.  The  coral  reefs  and  shells,  broken  and 
mixed  by  waves  and  currents,  as  well  as  changed  by  chemical 
action  and  the  pressure  of  later-formed  strata,  became  limestone; 
or,  when  melted  by  volcanic  heat,  crystallized  into  marble.  The 
banks  of  chalky  mud  or  sand  became  white  limestone  or  chalk. 
These  Ume-rocks,  often  in  successive  strata,  forming  together  a 
thickness  of  many  feet,  underlie  a  great  part  of  the  land-surface  of 
the  earth. 

188.  Land  Animals. — Land  animals,  and  the  higher  forms  of 
oceanic  life,  have  done  little  more  than  leave  the  skeleton  records 
of  their  existence  imbedded  in  rocks,  which,  in  their  time,  were 
layers  of  mud  or  sand.* 

QUESTIONS. 

Oral. — Give  three  examples  of  organic  life.  Give  three  examples  of 
organic  substances  not  alive.  Give  three  examples  of  inorganic  substances. 
Is  water  an  organic  or  an  inorganic  substance? 

How  does  a  plant  differ  from  an  animal  in  its  mode  of  living? 

Distribution  of  Plants. — What  is  the  chief  food  of  plants?  What  do  plants 
require  besides  food?  Upon  what  two  things  does  abundance  of  vegetation 
depend?  Under  what  conditions  ■  will  vegetation  be  rank?  Under  what 
thin?    Where,  on  the  earth,  is  vegetation  most  abundant?    Why? 

State,  as  well  as  you  can,  what  you  understand  by  "the  general  character 
of  plant-life,"  and  illustrate  it  by  examples.  What  is  the  difference  between 
the  "general  character"  of  the  vegetation  of  the  Torrid  Zone  apd  that  of 
the  Frigid  Zone? 

What  proportion  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered  by  forests?  What  other 
covering  has  the  earth?  What  names  are  given  to  herbage-regions  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world? 

State,  as  well  as  you  can,  the  difference  between  "the  general  character 
of  vegetation"  and  "the  kinds  of  plants."  Illustrate  your  statement  by 
examples. 

4,  The  skeletons  of  mammoth  reptiles,  birds,  and  elephants  have  been  found  imbedded 
in  the  earth  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  have  been  dug  up  and  placed  in  muse- 
ums for  the  inspection  of  the  curious  and  the  study  of  scholars.  Also,  prints  of  skeletons 
are  sometimes  found  in  solid  rocks.    (See  illustration  on  p.  12.) 

*  extirpating,  rooting  out.  *j-«^^ra«<;  over-abundant. 

moUusks:  animals  with  soft,  boneless  bodies  inclosed  by  shells,  as  snails  and  oysters. 

periwinkles:  sea-shore  snails. 

sperTTKvhale:  a  whale  whose  head  yields  the  fatty  matter  from  which  sperm  candles  are 
made.  right-^vhale:  the  common  whale,  whose  mouth  yields  whalebone. 

morasses:  tracts  of  soft,  wet  ground;  marshes. 

anthracite  coal:  a  hard  coal  with  a  shining  surface,  that  burns  without  flame,  because 
wanting  in  bltu'men. 

bituminous  coat:  the  common  coal,  softer  than  anthracite  and  containing  a  mineral  pitch 
called  bitumen.  lagoon:  a  lake  or  morass  communicating  with  the  sea  by  a  strait. 

silicious:  partaking  of  the  nature  of  flint,  sand,  or  quartz. 

foraminifers:  a  low  order  of  minute  animals,  having  lime-like  or  chalky  shells,  which 
are  perforated  by  pores  like  those  of  the  skin. 


MANKIND." 


31 


How  do  natural  causes  affect  the  distribution  of  the  kinds  of  plants?  Give 
examples  of  the  distribution  of  plants  by  man? 

What  is  Irish  moss? 

Distribution  of  Animals. — Is  animal  life  more  or  less  abundant  in  the 
tropics  than  in  the  Temperate  and  Frigid  Zones?  What  difference  is  noted 
between  the  plumage  of  birds  in  tropical  regions  and  that  of  birds  in 
the  Temperate  Zones?  What  difference  in  voices?  What  animal  in  the 
Temperate  Zones  may  be  said  to  take  the  place  of  monkeys  in  the  Torrid 
Zone?  Name  the  chief  animals  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  Of  the  Temperate 
Zones.     Of  the  Arctic  regions. 


What  natural  causes  affect  the  distribution  of  the  kinds  of  animals?  What 
difference  is  noticed  between  the  kinds  of  animals  in  the  North  Temperate 
and  North  Frigid  Zones  and  those  in  the  South  Temperate  Zone? 

How  is  the  proportion  between  wild  and  domestic  animals  being  affected? 

What  animals  are  found  in  tropical  ocean-waters?  In  the  waters  of  the 
Temperate  Zones?     Of  the  Frigid  Zones? 

Work  of  Plants  and  Animals  in  Building  the  Earth. — Name  three  impor- 
tant minerals  that  are  the  product  of  plants.  How  is  peat  produced  and 
where  chiefly  found?    How  is  coal  produced? 

What  minerals  are  the  result  of  animal  life?     . 


MANKIND. 


CONDITIONS  OF  MEN. 

189.  When  we  read  or  hear  about  the  people  of  Africa  and 
their  hut  villages,  and  learn  about  the  wandering  tribes  in  Asia 
who  go  from  place  to  place  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  live 
in  tents;  and  learn,  also,  that  there  are  still  wilder  people  who 
scarcely  have  any  houses,  but  who  merely  live  by  hunting  and 
fishing,  we  realize  that  the  people  who  dwell  on  the  earth  diSer 
very  much  among  themselves. 

190.  Degrees  of  Development. — On  account  of  this  difference 
in  the  condition  of  men,  they  are  sometimes  divided  into  three  great 
classes  to  mark  their  several  stages  of  development — the  savage 
class,  the  barbarous  class,  and  the  civilized  class. 

191.  Savages. — The  lowest,  or  savage,  state  is  that  in  which 
men  subsist  on  wild  plants  and  animals,  neither  tilling  the  soil 
nor  domesticating  creatures  for  their  food.  Some  of  the  American 
Indians,  and  many  of  the  natives  of  Africa,  Australia,  and  the 
Pacific  islands,  are  savages. 

192.  Barbarians. — Men  may  be  considered  to  have  risen  into 
the  next,  or  barbarous,  state  when  they  engage  in  agriculture. 
They  then  supply  food  for  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  make  some 
simple  provision  of  milk  and  meat  for  themselves  and  their  families. 
Many  of  the  higher  tribes  of  Africa,  Australia,  and  Asia  are  barba- 
rians. Some  of  the  Arabs  and  American  Indians  also  belong  to 
this  class. 

193.  Civilized  Life. —  Civilized  life  begins  with  the  art  of 
writing,  which  records  history,  law,  knowledge,  and  reUgions  for 
the  guidance  of  the  people  and  the  service  of  ages  to  come,  and 
thus  binds  together  the  past  and  the  future  in  a  life  of  intellectual 
and  moral  progress. 

1 94.  Changes  in  Condition. — Civilized  men  to-day  see  about 
them  such  conveniences  as  the  railroad,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone, 
shops,  factories,  and  schools.  This  was  not  always  so.  Many  a 
man  can  remember,  as  he  flies  from  town  to  town  on  an  express- 
train,  that  he  took  the  same  journey  years  before  in  a  stage-coach; 
and  the  message  that  he  sends  by  telegraph  with  lightning  speed 
he  once  trusted  to  the  fleetness  of  man  or  horse. 

195.  Development  in  Civilization. — This  growth  or  develop- 
ment in  civilization,  so  rapid  in  our  own  time,  has  been  going  on 
more  or  less  actively  since  the  early  ages  of  man.  Proof  of  this 
comes  in  several  different  ways.  One  way  is  by  studying  the 
customs  and  habits  of  nations  where  we  find  the  remains  of  older 
conditions  out  of  which  the  new  ones  arose.  Another  way  is  by 
means  of  history,  which,  so  far  as  it  reaches  back,  shows  man 
in  a  rude  state  becoming  more  and  more  intelligent  and  expert  in 
providing  for  his  comfort  and  happiness.  The  history  of  any  nation 
like  the  English  or  French  shows  how  men  grow,  in  the  course  of 


ages,  from  a  savage  state  to  the  civilized  condition  of  the  present. 
And  in  comparing  the.se  nations  with  older  civilizations,  like  those 
of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome,  we  see  that  the  newer  civilizations  are 
in  advance  of  the  older,  showing  a  constant  progress  in  mankind 
as  a  whole. 

196.  Ancient  Relics. — One  of  the  most  valuable  aids  in  tracing 
the  development  of  mankind  is  a  study  of  the  implements  that 
are  buried  beneath  the  earth's  surface.  If  there  are  found  buried 
anywhere  weapons  of  bronze  or  iron,  bits  of  fine  pottery,  bones  of 
domestic  cattle,  charred  com,  and  scraps  of  cloth,  this  indicates 
that  the  people  who  lived  there  were  well  advanced  toward  civil- 
ization. If  there  are  found  only  rude  implements  of  stone  and 
bone,  but  no  metal,  no  earthen-ware,  no  remains  to  show  that  cattle 
were  kept,  this  is  evidence  that  -the  country  was  once  inhabited 
by  some  savage  tribe.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  in  every  region 
of  the  inhabited  world  ancient  stone  implements  are  found  in  the 
ground,  showing  that  at  some  time  the  inhabitants  were  savage. 

197.  The  First  Tools. — The  first  need  of  man,  in  his  work  of 
progress,  was  for  some  kind  of  tool  with  which  to  strike  and  cut, 
in  order  that  he  might  fashion  the  rough  implements  with  which 
to  obtain  food  and  to  protect  himself  from  the  beasts  around  him. 
Rough,  almond-shaped  axes  and  rude  knives  were  made  by  clip- 
ping stones  until  edges  for  cutting  were  formed.  How  do  we 
know  this  ? 

198.  Drift  Men. — In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  rough, 
unground,  unpolished  stone  implements  have  been  found  many 
feet  below  the  surface,  in  the  layers  of  clay,  sand,  gravel,  and  stone, 
formed  by  the  detritus  of  streams.  As  these  tools  must  have  been 
made  by  men,  the  conclusion  is  that  at  some  very  remote  age 
these  localities  were  occupied  by  such  men  as  use  these  tools. 
These  people  are  known  as  drift  men,  because  the  only  traces 
of  their  existence  are  found  in  the  deposits  made  by  rivers.  These 
deposits  are  known  as  river-drift.  The  age  in  which  they  lived 
is  called  the  stone  age,  from  the  kind  of  tools  employed  by  the 
men  of  that  time. 

199.  Cave  Men. — Many  relics  of  human  handiwork,  together 
with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  have  been  found  in  caves  in  England, 
France,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  Careful  study  of  these  remains 
has  led  to  the  supposition  that  these  caves  were,  in  a  past  age, 
the  dwelling-places  of  the  men  of  that  age,  who  are  called  cave 
men. 

200.  How  Relics  Show  Progress. — The  cave  reUcs,  like  those 
of  the  river-drift,  lie  many  feet  below  the  surface,  in  strata  whose 
formation  has  t^ken  an  inconceivable  length  of  time.  The  more 
recently-formed  strata  contain  implements  of  a  much  higher  and 
better  order,  showing  a  steady  advance  toward  civilization. 


32 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


201 .  Present  Examples  of  Drift  and  Cave  Men. — Examples 
of  man  in  the  same  stage  of  human  progress  as'the  drift  men  and 
cave  men  of  the  stone  age  are  now  found  among  the  natives  of 
Africa,  Australia,  some  of  the  Pacific  islands,  and  in  the  ver>'  cold 
regions  of  the  north.  They  possess  but  little  intelligence,  seek 
shelter  in  caves  and  rude  huts,  and  their  only  occupation  is  hunt- 
ing for  sufficient  food  to  last  from  day  to  day.' 

QUESTIONS. 

Describe  the  difference  between  the  savage  and  the  barbarous  condition. 
What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  civilized  condition? 

What  relics  buried  in  the  earth  afford  evidence  that  civilized  people  once 
occupied  that  region?  What  relics  are  evidence  of  the  former  presence  there 
of  savage  tribes?  How  extensive  has  the  savage  condition  been  as  shown 
by  the  relics  of  past  races? 

Who  were  the  drift  men?  What  name  Jvgiven  to  the  age  in  which  they 
lived?  Why?  Who  were  the  cave  men?  How  do  the  relics  found  show 
that  progress  was  made  in  the  ages  before  history  began? 

Where  may  present  examples  of  drift  and  cave  men  be  found?  What  is 
their  character  and  how  do  they  live? 

Original  Studies. — Write  in  one  column  the  names  of  all  the  savage  tribes 
that  you  remember  reading  or  hearing  about,  and,  opposite  each,  write  the 
name  of  the  continent  in  which  they  lived  or  live.  Make  a  similar  list  of 
the  names  and  locality  of  barbarians. 

Have  you  ever  seen  arrow-  or  spear-heads?  Of  what  were  they  made? 
Where  were  they  found?  Have  you  ever  seen  any  stone  implements  of  any 
kind?  What  were  thej'  like?  For  what  were  they  used?  Make  a  sketch  of 
those  that  you  remember. 

On  which  continent  do  you  think  you  would  find  most  savages?  Why  do 
you  think  so?  What  are  flocks?  What  are  herds?  Make  a  list  of  con- 
veniences used  by  civilized  man  that  savages  and  barbarians  do  not  have. 
Write  the  names  of  six  civilized  nations.  In  which  one  do  we  live?  Are 
there  any  savage  or  barbarian  tribes  in  our  nation? 

What  histories  have  you  read?  Which  did  you  like  best?  Why?  How 
do  people  travel  from  where  you  live  to  San  Francisco?  Find  out  how  they 
traveled  twenty-five  years  ago. 

Make  a  list  of  implements  used  by  the  farmers  near  you.  Put  a  cross  after 
the  ones  that  were  not  invented  in  your  grandfather's  time.  Make  a  list  of 
things  used  in  the  house  to  make  work  easy  and  rapid.  What  did  your 
grandmother  use  in  place  of  some  of  these  things? . 

TYPES  OF  MEN. 

202.  Difficulty  of  Classification. — The  color,  features,  and 
habits  of  the  various  races  and  tribes  of  men  have  been  so  changed 
by  the  influence  of  climate  and  by  the  intermarrying  of  individuals 
of  difierent  tribes  that  it  is  difficult  to  separate  mankind  into 
distinct  types. 

203.  Schemes  of  Classification. — Various  schemes,  such  as 
continental  location,  physical  characteristics,  and  similarity  of 
language,  have  been  used  by  scientific  men  as  a  basis  for  classi- 
fication.' 

204.  Division  into  Five  Races.  —  One  classification,  very 
extensively  used,  divides  the  human  family  into  five  races:  the 
Caucasian,  or  white,  race;  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow,  race;  the 
Malay,  or  brown,  race;  the  Ethiopian,  or  black,  race;  the  Amer- 
ican, or  copper-colored,  race. 

205.  Three  Types. — Another  basis  of  classification  now  quite 
commonly  employed  by  students  of  this  subject,  and  which  is 
adopted  in  this  book,  gives  three  types:  the  wAiie  type,  fh^ yellow 
type,  and  the  black  type. 

206.  Characteristics  of  the  White  Type. — The  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  white  type  are  oval  skull,  perpendicular 
face  line,  complexion  varying  from  light  brown  to  white,  eyes 

t.  In  some  caves  in  southern  Africa  there  are  streams  of  running  water.  The  walls  have 
the  appearance  of  pumice  stone;  and  limestone  is  also  found.  In  the  caves  and  around 
their  mouths  live  thousands  of  natives.  They  till  their  millet  fields  in  front  of  their  sub- 
terranean homes,  and  store  their  food  in  them.  They  are  found  to  be  a  wild  but  peace- 
loving  people. 


brown,  black,  blue,  or  gray,  and  fine  hair,  var>'ing  from  black  to 
straw  color. 

207.  Location  of  White  Type.  — The  peoples  of  this  type 
originally  occupied  southwestern  Asia,  Europe,  and  northern 
Africa,  but  they  have  spread  until  some  of  them  are  to  be  found 
in  nearly  every  habitable  part  of  the  world.  The  difference  in 
their  complexion  and  habits  divides  the  white  type  into  fair- 
whites  and  dark-whites. 

208.  Fair- Whites.— The  fair-whites  occupy  nearly  all  of  central 
and  northern  Europe,  western  Asia,  Great  Britain,  a  large  portion 
of  North  America,  and  a  portion  of  Australia.  While  the  people 
of  this  division  can  live  under  the  most  varied  conditions,  from  the 
frigid  climate  of  Greenland  to  the  tropics  of  India,  they  reach  their 
highest  state  of  civilization  in  temperate  regions,  where  they  at 
present  embrace  the  most  intellectual,  progressive,  and  powerful 
nations  of  the  world.  To  this  division  belong  the  French,  Ger- 
man, English,  and  their  American  descendants. 

209.  Dark -Whites.  — The  dark-whites  thrive  in  tropical 
climates.  They  predominate  in  southern  Europe,  northern  Africa; 
southwestern  Asia,  Mexico,  and  the  parts  of  South  America 
inhabited  b}'  white  men. 

210.  Characteristics  of  the  Yellow  Type. — The  yellow  type 
is  characterized  by  a  complexion  varying  from  a  leather-like  yellow 
in  the  Chinese  to  a  deep  brown  in  the  Malay,  or  a  tendencj'  to  red 
in  the  American  tribes.  The  hair  is  straight  and  black,  and  the 
beard  almost  entirely  wanting.  The  eyes  are  black,  sometimes 
obliquely  set,  and  the  cheek-bones  are  high.  The  Mongolian, 
American,  and  Malay  races  belong  to  this  type. 

211.  Number  of  the  Yellow  Type. — In  numbers  this  type 
surpasses  everj-  other.  Not  only  is  it  more  widely  scattered,  but 
in  the  region  occupied  by  its  most  important  branches  the  popula- 
tion is  more  thickly  crowded  together  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  globe. 

212.  Locality  of  Yellow  Type. — It  includes  the  inhabitants  of 
southeastern  and  eastern  Asia;  of  Tibet;  the  many  tribes  of  northern 
Asia;  their  neighbors,  the  Lapps,  of  northern  Europe;  the  original 
inhabitants  found  by  the  whites  throughout  all  North  and  South 
America — the  ancient  populous  and  civilized' nations  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  as  well  as  the  wild  and  scattered  tribes  of  other  localities. 

213.  Civilization  of  the  Yellow  Type. — As  a  whole,  this 
type,  though  containing  the  savage  tribes  of  North  and  South 
American  Indians,  and  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Siberia,  Labrador, 
and  Greenland,  ranks  next  to  the  whites  in  civilization.  The 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Coreans,  and  the  natives  of  Indo-China,  are  its 
best  representatives. 

214.  Characteristics  of  the  Black  Type. — The  black  type  is 
distinguished  by  black  or  dark-brown  complexion,  projecting  jaws, 
retreating  forehead,  thick  lips,  black  eyes,  broad,  flat  noses,  and 
black,  woolly  or  frizzly  hair. 

215.  Locality  of  the  Black  Type. — The  black  type  occupies 
the  southern  half  of  Africa,  central  Australia,  southern  Hindoostan, 
a  part  of  Madagascar,  New  Guinea,  and  some  of  the  adjacent 
islands.  Those  living  in  and  about  Africa  are  called  Negroid 
blacks,  and  those  living  in  and  about  Australia  are  called  Austra- 
loid  blacks.  The  Australoid  blacks  differ  from  the  Negroid  blacks 
in  being  lighter  in  color  and  in  having  bushy  instead  of  frizzly  or 
woolly  hair. 

2.  Many  people  think  that  the  whole  human  family  originally  sprung  from  one  source, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere  in  Asia,  and  that  the  various  changes  in  color, 
habits,  and  intelligence  have  been  the  result  of  geographical  surroundings.  Many  others 
think  that  the  distinct  types  sprung  from  entirely  different  sources,  and  that  these  types 
have  intermingled  until  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  one  leaves  off  and  another  begins.    ' 


MANKIND. 


38 


34 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


216.  Civilization  of  the  Black  Type. — The  black  races  have 
never  of  themselves  produced  a  civilized  nation;  but  the  negroes 
of  Africa  readily  absorb  civilization,  proving  themselves  capable 
of  discipline  and  social  order,  and  easily  adapting  themselves  to 
the  manners,  language,  and  customs  of  more  enlightened  people 


MAP  QUESTIONS. — Which  type  occupies  the  largest  portion  of  the  earth's  surface?  Which  the  smallest? 
Which  is  nearly  all  within  tropical  regions?  To  which  type  do  the  Eskimos  belong?  The  Patagonians?  The 
Aztecs?  The  Papuans?  The  Arabs?  The  Lapps?  The  Tartars?  The  Persians?  The  Hindoos?  Which  type 
occupies  most  of  the  United  States?    Europe?    Asia?    Australia? 


with  whom  they  come  in  contact.  This  has  been  especially  shown 
in  the  association  of  blacks  with  the  white  races  in  the  United 
States.  In  their  own  country,  while  civilization  is  of  a  low  degree, 
it  is  more  uniform  than  that  of  the  yellow  type  in  America — hus- 
bandry and  cattle-breeding  being  almost  universal. 


QUMSTIONS. 

Into  what  three  t3rpes  is  mankind 
divided  for  study  in  this  book?  Describe 
the  first.  What  is  meant  by  ' '  perpen- 
dicular face  line?"  Where  did  this 
type  originate?  Into  what  two  divis- 
ions is  it  divided?  What  nations 
belong  to  the  first  of  these  two  divisions? 
What  to  the  second? 

What  races  belong  to  the  yellow  type? 
Describe  the  ph3'sical  characteristics  of 
this  type.  Where  is  it  located?  How 
does  it  rank  with  the  other  types  in 
civilization?  What  prominent  nations 
belong  to  it?  What  of  its  number  and 
locality? 

Give  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  black  type.  Give  the  names  of  its 
di\-isions.  Give  the  locality  of  each. 
Describe  the  civilisation  of  this  tj-pe. 

Original  Studies. — How  many  types 
of  man  have  you  seen?  Where  did  you 
see  them?  Did  they  always  live  where 
they  do  now?  If  not,  where  did  they 
come  from?  Do  these  different  types 
dress  alike?    Are  their  homes  alike? 


DWMLLINGS  OF  MEN. 

217.  Ancient  Savage  Houses. — The  first  habitations  of  men 
were  the  rough  caves  and  rock-shelters  formed  by  nature.  Their 
next  dwellings  were  rude  huts  of  some  sort.  One  of  the  earliest 
of  these  of  which  any  examples  are  found,  is  the  circular  hut 
built  by  driving  slender  tree-trunks  into  the  ground,  sometimes 
on  land  but  oftener  in  shallow  lake-bottoms,  the  water  affording 
a  means  of  protection  from  surrounding  enemies.  These  tree- 
trunks  were  bound  together  with  rushes  or  slender  twigs.  The 
roofs  were  of  bark,  straw,  or  rushes.  Remains  of  whole  villages 
of  such  huts  thus  supported  upon  piles  have  been  excavated*  in 
the  bottoms  of  lakes  in  Europe. 

The  practice  of  building  their  dwellings  on  platforms  erected 
over  the  water,  must  have  been  kept  up  by  the  villagers  through 
long  periods  of  time.  This  is  seen  in  the  progressive  character  of 
the  implements  found  among  the  remains  of  these  early  habitations. 
In  the  older  lake-dwellings  stone  blades  are  found,  polished  but 
not  made  for  handles;  in  later  dwellings  the  sharpened  stone  is 
found  pierced  for  handles,  and  in  the  most  recent  bronze  imple- 
ments are  added. 

Among  these  early  people,  whose  history  is  thus  written  in  the 
earth  and  not  in  books,  agriculture  was  followed  to  a  considerable 
extent.  There  is  evidence  that  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellers 
practiced  husbandry',  ate  bread,  planted  fruit-trees,  and  dried  apples. 
Nearly  all  the  domestic  animals  of  the  present  time  were  raised, 
and  were  sheltered  under  the  same  roof  that  covered  their  owners. 

218.  Modern  Savage  Houses. — This  method  of  erecting 
dwellings  is  at  present  used  by  the  Papuans,  of  New  Guinea;  the 

1.  Traveler*  have  recently  found  that  much  larger  numbers  of  people  still  live  like  these 
lake-dwellers  of  ancient  times  than  was  formerly  supposed.  For  hundreds  of  miles  along 
the  south  and  east  coasts  of  New  Guinea,  in  many  a  sheltered  inlet  and  bay,  are  large 
villages  built  on  piles  in  the  water,  and  reached  from  the  shore  only  by  canoes.  In  central 
Africa  large  collections  of  hats  are  thus  built  over  the  lakes,  from  which  the  natives  issue 


Dyaks,  of  Borneo,  and  many  of  the  African  savages.  The  Indian 
wigwam  and  the  snow-house  of  the  Eskimo  are  also  examples  of 
the  present  habitations  of  savage  man.' 

219.  The  Houses  of  Civilization. — When  men  discovered 
how  to  use  metals,  and  implements  of  bronze  replaced  those  of 
stone,  thej-  are  said  to  have  advanced  into  the  metal  age.  The  use 
of  better  tools  developed  g^eat  changes  in  the  houses  of  mankind. 
The  rude  circular  huts  were  put  aside  for  spacious  houses  with 
roofs  carried  on  lofty  posts  with  cross-beams,  or  on  solid  walls  of 
earth  or  stone.  In  fact,  these  next  houses  began  to  be  somewhat 
like  our  own. 

There  are  at  the  present  time  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
examples  of  dwellings  in  all  grades  of  development.  There  are 
the  caves  of  south  and  central  Africa,  Russia,  and  Scandinavia; 
the  lake  settlements  and  huts  of  the  Pacific  islands  and  Africa,  the 
wigwams  of  America,  the  log-cabins  of  first  settlers  in  the  wooded 
countries,  and  the  sod-houses  of  the  early  settlers  on  the  prairie; 
afterwards  the  more  substantial  farm-  and  town-houses,  and  finally 
the  palatial  residences  of  thrifty  and  cultured  civiUzation. 

CI^OTHING. 

220.  Ornaments.  —  Man  is  supposed  to  have  first  lived  in  a 
warm  climate,  where  clothing  was  not  needed,  and  instead  of 
covering  himself,  he  endeavored  only  to  ornament  his  body.  He 
loaded  his  ankles,  his  neck,  and  his  hair,  with  stone,  bone,  shell, 
and,  later,  with  metal  trinkets.  Holes  were  made  in  his  ears,  in  his 
nose,  and  in  his  lips,  in  order  to  improve  his  appearance  by  further 
possibilities  of  ornamentation,  and  among  many  savages  the  body 
was  scarred  by  being  cut  or  tattooed  in  many  curious  designs. 

in  the  morning  to  till  their  fields  on  shore  and  to  which  they  retire  at  night  or  when 
danger  threatens.    From  discoveries  recently  made  it  is  thought  that  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  .Africans  thus  moor  their  canoes  under  their  huts  at  night  and  reach  the  rude  floor 
above  by  means  of  ladders, 
*€xcwoaied:  dug  up. 


MANKIND. 


86 


221.  First 
Clothing.— The 

tribes  that  wan- 
dered   to    colder 
regions  found  it 
necessary  to  pro- 
tect    themselves 
from  the  extremes 
of  climate.     The 
skins  of  animals 
were      fashioned 
into  coarse   gar- 
ments   that    an- 
swered this  purpose.  The  Eskimos,  Lapps 
and  other  peoples  of  northern  Europe  and 
Asia  still  use  this  style  of  garment.     In 
warm  climates,  the  savage  who  first  wanted 
garments  got  them  in  a  very  simple  way 
by  taking  the  covering  off  from  a  tree  and 
putting  it  on  himself.     The  bark  of  trcc^ 
provides  clothes  for  rude  races  in  man\ 
districts.     In  the  Brazilian  forests  there  i-^ 
what  is  known  as  the  "shirt-tree."  A  man 
cuts  a  four-  or  five-foot  length  of  the  tree, 
or  a  large  branch,  and  gets  the  bark  off 
in   an  entire  tube.     He  then   .soaks   and 
beats  the  bark  soft  and  cuts  slits  for  arm- 
holes,  when  he  is  able  to  slip  it  on  as  a  ready-made  garment 

222.  Leather  and  Cloth. — The  use  of  bark  and  skins  for 
clothing  led  to  the  dressing  of  leather.  The  early  general  use  of 
leather  garments  may  be  seen  when  we  note  the  vast  numbci-^ 
of  skin-dressing  implements  of  sharjj  stone  found  in  the  ground. 
Some  of  the  Indians  of  North  America  still  prepare  deer-skin 
for  clothing  so  that  it  is  something  like  chamois  (shSni'mx  ' 
leather,  and  in  Polynesia  the  natives  use  a  cloth  made  by  beat- 
ing the  bark  of  the  paper-mulberry,  on  which  they  stamp 
colored  patterns  for  ornament. 

223.  Woven  Cloth.  —  Plaiting  and  matting  became  earh 
known  to  savages.  In  hot  countries  matting  is  much  used  b\ 
the  tribes,  as  in  case  of  the  South  Sea  Islander,  who  makes  his 
gowns  of  plaited  grass.  Now,  if  we  pull  a  scrap  of  woven  cloth 
to  pieces,  we  see  that  it  is,  in  fact,  a  piece  of  matting  done  with 
thread,  so  we  can  readily  perceive  how  man  learned  to  weave, 
first  by  plaiting  matting  and  then  by  twisting  some  kind  of  fiber,  as 
cotton,  or  wool,  or  hemp,  into  a  string  or  thread  and  weaving  it  into 
cloth.     This  was  first  done  by  rolling  the  fiber  in  the  hands,  then 


came  the  spindle,  after  it  the  spinning-wheel,  and  continued  im- 
provements have  given  us  the  machine  used  in  cloth  factories  where 
a  hundred  spindles  in  a  row  are  driven  rapidly  by  steam-power. 


36 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


for  lighting  purposes.     Gas  and  electricity  are  the  best  of  illuminating 
agents,  and  are  used  chiefly  in  towns  and  cities. 

QUMSTIONS. 

Dwellings. — Describe  the  first  habitations  of  men.    Describe  the  lake-dwellings. 
What  tribes  now  use  dwellings  of  this  sort?     In  what  part  of  the  world  are  cave- 
dwellings  still  found?     Of  what  are  the  houses  of  first  settlers  in  wooded  countries 
usually  made?     In  prairie  countries? 

Clothing. — Of  what  material  is  clothing  made  among  savage  tribes 
in  the  Arctic  regions?     In  the  tropical  latitudes? 
What  is  said  about  the  use  of  leather  for  clothing?    Of  bark? 
How  is  it  supposed  men  learned  tO  weave? 
What  influence  has  the  desire  for  food  and  clothing  on  the 
industry  and  development  of  the  race? 

Lighting. — When  was  kerosene  oil  discovered? 
n/^       When  did  gas  for  lighting  come  into  use? 

Original  Studies. — Have  you  ever  seen  any 

\S\    Indian  huts  or  wigwams?    Of  what  were 

•^    they  made?     Make  a  sketch  of  them, 

as  well  as  you  can.     Look  for  some 

pictures  of  huts  of  savages  that  live 


FOOD  AND  COOKING. 

224.  Progress    in    the    Art    of 
Cooking. — The  food  of  savages  must  be 

such  as  is  near  at  hand  and  easy  to  obtain.  ^^^^ 

First,  the  native  vegetable  products  supply  their  ^'^o"ove^ 
wants;  then  they  learn  to  hunt  and  fish.  After  the  discovery 
of  the  use  of  fire  they  learn  to  cook  their  meats  over  an  open, ' 
outdoor  fire,  such  as  is  now  used  by  campers.  With  better 
houses  and  metal  implements  come  the  open  fire-place  and  bake- 
oven  in  the  house.  With  the  utilization  of  iron  the  fire-place 
is  replaced  by  the  old-fashioned  cooking-stove,  and  modem 
invention  has  supplanted  this  with  the  elaborate  range  adapted  to 
the  preparation  of  food  for  large  numbers  of  persons  at  one  time. 

225.  Influence  of  the  Desire  for  Food  and  Clothing.— The 
desire  to  obtain  food  and  clothing  is  a  powerful  agent  in  the 
development  of  men.     The  energy  directed  toward  obtaining,  manufacturing, 
and  transporting  food-products  from  place  to  place  gives  rise  to  the  leading 
industries  of  the  world. 

I^IGHTJNG. 

226.  Early  Modes  of  Lighting. — With  cooking,  clothing,  and  houses 
came  methods  of  lighting  the  dwellings  of  men.     The  open  fire  lighted  the 


Mi£ke^ 


house  of  a  single  room.  As  other  rooms  were  added  a  piece  ol  cloth, 
or  wick,  in  a  vessel  that  held  some  kind  of  animal  oil,  constituted 
the  first  lamp.  Next,  candles  were  used  to  drive  away  the  darkness. 
227.  Present  Mode  of  Lighting. — Kerosene  oil,  obtained  from 
coal  fields,  was  discovered  during  the  present  centurj',  and  has 
almost  everywhere  taken  the  place  of  the  candle.  Illuminating 
gas,  usually  extracted  from  coal,  came  into  use  about  one  hundred 
years  ago,  and  within  a  few  years  electricity  has  been  employed 


in  other  countries.  Of  what  are  Eskimo  huts  made?  How  do  you  Know  this? 
Why  are  they  made  of  this  material?  Why  should  the  houses  in  wooded 
countries  be  log-houses?  Why  in  prairie  countries  sod-houses?  Write  in  one 
column  a  list  of  all  the  materials  you  can  think  of  that  go  into  a  frame- 
house,  and  opposite  each  sort  write  the  part  of  the  house  for  which  it  is  used. 
In  a  similar  manner  make  a  list  of  materials  emplo}'ed  in  constructing  the 
best  brick-house  you  were  ever  in.  Have  j-ou  camped  or  been  where  you  have 
seen  campers?  How  was  the  cooking  done?  Make  a  list  similar  to  those 
above,  of  different  cloths  that  you  know,  and  tell  of  what  they  are  made, 
and  for  what  used.     Boys,  make  a  list  of  cloth  for  male  wear.     Tell  which 


MANKIND. 


37 


kind  costs  most  and  which  wears  best.  Girls, 
in  a  similar  way,  make  a  list  for  female  wear. 
Make  a  list  of  ornaments  worn  by  civilized 
people.  What  do  you  wear  that  is  made  of 
leather?  What  kind  of  leather  is  it?  Do  you 
know  where  it  was  made?  Can  you  learn  where? 
Can  you  learn  how  leather  is  manufactured 
from  hides? 

RELIGIONS. 

228.  Religion  Universal. — Belief  in 
powers  superior  to  himself  is  universal 
with  man.  Nowhere  has  he  yet  been 
found  without  a  religion  of  some  sort. 

229.  Pagan  Religions.— The  simple 
savage,  impressed  with  fear  and  wonder 
at  the  surrounding  phenomena*  of  nature, 
in  his  helplessness  imagines  that  the 
wind,  the  lightning,  and  the  thunder  are 
demonstrations  of  invisible  beings,  who 
may  overcome  him  at  any  moment.  To 
gain  the  favor  of  these  beings,  many 
practices  and  ceremonies  are  devised. 
The  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  images  made 
to  represent  invisible  powers,  are  wor- 
shipped in  extremely  varied  fashions. 
Religions  of  this  class  are  called  pagan 
religions.     All  savages  are  pagans. 

230.  Religions  of  Civilization. — The 
present  religions  of  civilization  are  Brah- 

minism,  Bud'dhism,  Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism. 

231.  Brahminism  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  religions  of  civil- 
ization, and  is  mostly  confined  to  the  people  of  India. 


MirJAKET,    FAGODA,    DOMES,   SPIRE, 


232.  Buddhism  is  an  attempted  refor- 
mation of  Brahminism.  It  is  the  religion  of 
most  of  the  people  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
the  Japanese  Empire,  and  Indo-China. 

233.  Judaism  developed  in  northeast- 
ern Africa  and  southwestern  Asia.  It  does 
not  now  prevail  extensively  in  any  one 
part  of  the  world,  but  its  followers  are 
scattered  over  many  parts  of  the  earth. 

234.  Christianity,  which  is  an  out- 
growth of  Judaism,  also  had  its  origin  in 
southwestern  Asia.  It  is  the  religion  of 
the  nations  most  advanced  in  civilization, 
culture,  and  progress. 

235.  Mohammedanism  was  first  pro- 
mulgated in  Arabia.  It  is  now  the  prevail- 
ing religion  of  that  and  the  surrounding 
countries. 

236.  Influence  of  Religion  upon 
Civilization  and  the  Arts.  —  Religion 
has  at  all  times  had  a  wonderful  influence 
in  shaping  and  developing  mankind,  both 
as  nations  and  as  individuals.  To  religion, 
more  than  to  anything  else,  is  due  the 
growth  of  architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  literature.  The  buildings  erected  for 
purposes  of  religious  observances  consti- 
tute the  best  specimens  of  architecture  in 

the  world.  The  finest  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  were  made 
to  adorn  their  interiors,  and  some  of  the  choicest  literature  of  the 
world  has  been  written  in  the  interest  of  religion. 


MAP  QUESTIONS. — In  what  continents  and  islands  is  the  Christian  church?  Where  does  the  Mohammedan  religion  prevail?  In  what  parts  of 
religion  found?  In  what  countries  is  it  the  prevailing  religion?  Where  is  'the  world  is  paganism  still  found?  Which  of  the  religions  of  civilization  ar« 
the  Catholic  church  most  largely  found?    The  Greek  church?    The  Protestant      most  widely  scattered?  'fketumtna:  remarkable  appearances. 


38 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY 


in^ 


•^^ 


I 


OCCUPATIONS. 

237.  Development  of  Occupations. — The  wants 
of  savage  life  are  few,  and  the  occupations  of  the  savage  are 
correspondingly  limited;  but  as  man  advances  in  culture 
and  intelligence,  he  continually  finds  more  for  his  brain  to 
coutrive  and  for  his  hands  to  execute. 

First,  comes  the  solitary  hunter  and  fisher,  bent  upon 
catching  his  food  for  the  day;  next,  the  shepherd,  who 
drives  his  flocks  from  pasture  to  pasture;  and  next,  the 
farmer,  cultivating  the  land  about  him. 

238.  Metals. — As  time  advances,  the  use  of  metals  is 
discovered.     It  is  not  known  how  men  first  learned  to 
smelt  ores  so  as  to  extract  the  metal,  but  the  first 
copper  and  iron  implements  are  supposed  to  have 
been  made  from  metal  found  in  a  pure  state.     Thus  the 
native  copper  near  Lake  Superior  was  used  in  long-past 
ages  by  the  tribes  then  living  in  the  country.    Iron,  also, 
is  sometimes  found  pure.     Gradually,  from  the  use  of 
these,  men  learned  in  some  way  to  extract  metals 
from  ores. 

239.  Bronze.  —  Bronze  was  one  of  the  articles  early 
used  most  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds 
of  wares.  This  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  with  tin,  in 
different  proportions,  to  harden  it.  It  is  used  now  chiefly  for 
statues,  bells,  and  cannon.  The  ease  with  which  it  could 
be  melted  and  such  things  as  hatchets  cast  in  stone  molds, 
made  it  more  convenient  than  iron  to  the  ancient  artificer. 

Thus,  one  by  one  the  great  manufacturing  and  mining 
industries  by  which  we  are  surrounded  grew  from  these  rude 
beginnings. 

240.  Growth  of  Commerce. — We  see  trade  in  its  lowest 
form  among  such  tribes  as  those  of  Australia,  where  the  tough 
green-stone,  valuable  for  making  hatchets,  is  carried  hundreds  of 
miles  by  natives,  who  receive  from  other  tribes  in  return  the  red 
ochre  with  which  they  paint  their  bodies.  From  such  exchange  we 
pass  to  more  extensive  trade,  as  men  become  more  civilized  and 
their  products  increase,  until  we  arrive  at  a  commerce  which  gives 
!S  tea  from  China,  sugar  from  the  Hawaiian  Kingdom,  wool  from 
Australia,  silks  from  Europe,  and  ivory  from  Africa. 


:s 


MANKIND. 


89 


243,  How  the  Industries  of  a  Country  are  Determined. — 

Most  of  the  imports  of  a  country  are  of  such  articles  as  are  not 


extensively  produced  at  home,  and  the  things  exported  are  those 
which  the  country  produces  in  quantities  greater  than  are  needed 


40 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


for  the  home  supply.  California  gets  tea  and  coffee  from  distant 
countries,  but  sends  away  great  quantities  of  fruit,  wheat,  lumber, 
gold,  and  silver.  The  natural  resources,  climate,  and  location  of  a 
country  determine  the  occupation  of  the  people.  Where  there  are 
large  tracts  of  fertile  land  agriculture  is  extensive;  if  the  land  is 
stored  with  rich  ores  and  precious  metals,  mining  is  carried  on, 
and  the  character  of  the  products  depends  upon  the  kind  of  ores, 
minerals,  and  other  things  found  in  that  country.  Where  the 
streams  are  of  a  character  to  furnish  water-power,  or  where  fuel 
for  steam-power  is  abundant  and  cheap,  manufactures  flourish; 
good  harbors  furnish  facilities  for  foreign  commerce;  and  extensive 
interior  waterways,  as  rivers  and  lakes,  together  with  long  stretches 
of  level  land  on  which  railroads  may  be  cheaply  built,  tend  to 
promote  domestic  commerce.  All  industries  have  been  greatly 
promoted  during  modern  times  by  the  wonderful  inventions  which 
enable  men  to  apply  steam  and  electricity  in  so  many  ways. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  difference  between  pure  metal  and  ore?  What  is  bronze?  For 
what  is  it  now  chiefly  used? 

What  example  of  commerce  among  native  Australian  tribes  can  you  give? 
How  is  commerce  facilitated  by  the  use  of  money?  What  is  chiefly  used  for 
money  among  civilized  nations?  What  other  things  have  been  also  used  for 
money? 

Describe  the  mode  of  transportation  among  savages.  Among  barbarians. 
Among  civilized  nations. 

Under  what  conditions  will  agriculture  be  carried  on  extensively? 
Mining?    Manufactures?     Commerce? 

Original  Studies. —  Make  a  list  of  occupations  of  your  neighborhood. 
What  occupation  w^ould  you  prefer?  Why?  Name  some  implements  used 
in  each  of  the  occupations  that  you  named.  Of  what  are  they  made?  What 
is  an  "alloy?"  What  ores  do  you  know  that  are  used  now?  For  what  are 
they  used?  Has  the  population  of  yom-  neighborhood  increased  or  decreased 
during  the  last  ten  years?  What  was  the  cause?  What  changes,  if  any,  in 
occupations  have  resulted?  What  things  do  the  people  of  your  neighbor- 
hood sell  most  of?  Make  a  list  of  things  that  they  buy.  Why  are  nearly 
all  of  the  people  in  some  districts  engaged  in  farming?  Why  are  those  of 
other  districts  miners?  Do  all  countries  use  the  same  kinds  of  money?  Are 
the  gold  and  silver  coins  of  different  countries  the  same? 

How  do  the  stores  near  where  you  live  receive  their  goods?  How  do  the 
people  around  you  travel  from  place  to  place?  How  many  different  methods 
of  transportation  have  you  seen?     Which  was  cheapest  and  most  rapid? 

GOVERNMENT. 

244.  Government  by  Chiefs. — When  men  unite  for  purposes 
of  mutual  convenience  and  protection,  they  must  agree  upon  some 
simple  forms  of  government.  At  first  the  rules  were  few,  and 
usually  full  power  was  vested  in  some  one  person,  who  was  chosen 
on  account  of  strength,  courage,  or  executive  power.  This  is  the 
form  of  government  used  among  savages  and  barbarians,  and  their 
chiefs  are  called  by  various  names,  such  as  the  s/ieik  of  the  Arab 
tribes,  and  the  sachem  of  the  North  American  Indians. 

245.  Government  and  Religion. — As  men  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion, their  duties  and  obligations  to  each  other  increased,  until  the 
simple  ruling  of  a  chief  was  no  longer  sufficient.  The  perception 
of  these  obligations  was  the  result  of  a  higher  sense  of  right  and 
wrong;  therefore,  at  this  period,  man's  government  and  his  religion 
were  closely  allied,  and  hence  in  all  of  the  early  civilizations  the 
religious  organizations  had  much  to  do  in  formulating  the  laws  that 
governed  the  people. 

246.  The  Growth  of  Nations. — In  fertile  valleys,  river-deltas, 
or  on  coast  islands,  where  food  was  plentiful,  and  where  natural 
boundaries  such  as  mountains,  deserts,  rivers,  or  seas,  served  as 
protection  from  hostile  enemies,  grew  the  first  nations  of  which 
history  tells  us.  Among  these  were  the  Babylonians,  who,  in  the 
protected  valley  of  the  Euphrates,  became  a  mighty  nation  whose 


history  survives,  though  the  nation  itself  was  long  since  swept 
away.  The  ancient  civilization  of  Egypt  grew  and  thrived  in  the 
fertile  Nile  Valley,  protected  on  one  side  by  the  great  Sahara  Desert 
and  on  the  other  by  the  waters  of  the  surrounding  seas.  As  the 
population  of  the  world  increased,  civilization  extended,  and  com- 
merce brought  nations  into  closer  relations  with  one  another,  the 
boundaries  were  determined  by  the  people,  sometimes  peaceably 
but  more  often  through  wars.  These  boundaries  constantly 
change  as  a  country'  acquires  or  loses  territory. 

247.  Laws. — As  nations  progressed,  laws  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  people  were  made  until  some  regular  sj'stem  of  government 
was  formed,  and  as  the  outgrowth  of  this  all  the  civilized  nations 
of  the  present  time  have  a  definite  form  of  government.  Every 
government  has  three  separate  offices  to  perform:  to  make  the 
laws;  to  interpret  the  laws  when  called  upon;  and  to  enforce 
obedience  to  the  laws.  The  first  is  called  the  Legislative  office, 
the  second  the  Judicial  office,  and  the  third  the  Exeaitive  office. 

248.  Kinds  of  Government. — The  forms  of  government  most 
common  among  civilized  people  are  the  Monarchy  and  the 
Democracy. 

249.  A  Monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  head,  or  chief 
executive  officer,  inherits  the  right  to  rule.  These  officers  are 
called  by  various  names,  as  King,  Czar,  Emperdr,  Queen,  Empress, 
and  many  more.  There  are  two  kinds  of  monarchies.  Absolute 
and  Limited. 

2.50.  An  Absolute  Monarchy  is  one  in  which  the  ruler  has 
sole  right  to  control  and  is  unrestricted  in  his  powers.  Russia, 
Persia,  and  Turkey  are  examples. 

251.  A  Limited  Monarchy  is  one  in  which  the  ruler  is 
required  to  govern  according  to  principles  contained  in  a  con- 
stitution, and  the  law-making  power  is  shared  by  the  crown  and 
a  popular  assembly.  Germany  and  Great  Britain  have  such 
governments. 

252.  A  Democracy  is  a  government  by  the  whole  people.  In 
a  large  or  populous  country-  not  all  of  the  people  can  meet  together 
to  make  the  laws,  hence  this  power  is  bestowed  upon  men  elected 
by  the  people  to  serve  for  a  limited  time.  The  chief  executive 
officer  is  also  elected  by  the  people,  and  serves  for  a  limited  period. 
Government  of  this  kind  is  called  a  Representative  Democracy,  or 
Republic.  The  United  States,  France,  Switzerland,  and  most  of 
the  South  American  countries  are  republics. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  names  are  given  to  the  rulers  of  savage  and  barbarons  tribes? 
Where  is  each  employed? 

In  what  kind  of  country  arose  the  first  nations  of  history?  Mention  two 
of  these  early  nations,  and  tell  where  they  were  located. 

What  are  the  two  most  common  forms  of  government?  What  is  a  mon- 
archy? An  absolute  monarchy?  A  limited  monarchy?  A  democracy? 
A  representative  democracy?  What  is  a  representative  democracy  called? 
Give  examples  of  a  democracy. 

Original  Studies. — Find  the  Euphrates  River  on  the  map  of  Turkey. 
Measure  by  the  scale  of  miles  three  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth,  and  you 
will  see  about  where  Babylon  was.  Find  the  Nile  River  and  Egypt  on  the 
same  map. 

Do  you  know  any  laws  that  affect  you?  What  would  happen  if  you  violate 
them? 

What  is  the  name  of  the  nation  in  which  you  live?  What  kind  of  gov- 
ernment has  it?  What  is  the  chief  executive  oflicer  called?  Is  our  country 
an  old  or  a  new  civilization? 

Are  there  any  people  near  you  who  came  from  other  countries?  Can  you 
find  out  anything  about  the  government  of  the  countries  from  which  they 
came?  Have  any  of  your  acquaintances  traveled  in  foreign  countries?  Can 
they  tell  you  some  of  the  ways  in  which  their  governments  differ  from  ours? 


NORTH    AMERICA. 


41 


"■'V'VlErMt 


§«> 


3>  G         /e,?.*  )  tv»l-^ 


-^Z^'^. 

^ 


1^  5^  \    r-v'V/r^jTN 


O 


*,/ 


'.^;S^^S'"''"-' 


-'^^^ ' 


\Polt. 


\ 


'l^V 


III.StE 


< 


V 


# 


u  <;;^' 


►iiOcillCtE- 


^ 


Al     ^/^\I'\1\!ah-l: 


H  D 
e  A  h  K6 


PHYSICAL    NORTH    AMERICA. 


43 


PHYSICAL  NORTH  AMERICA. 


MAP  QUESTIONS.' 

Position. — [See  Political  Map  of  North  America  on  opposite  page.]  In 
which  hemisphere  is  North  America,  Eastern  or  Western?  Northern  or 
Southern?  What  direction  from  South  America?  From  Eurasia?  From 
Africa?    (See  Maps  of  Eurasia  and  Africa.) 

What  isthmus  joins  it  to  South  Amer- 
ica? From  what  continent  is  it  separated 
by  a  strait?  Wliat  oceans  touch  North 
America?  What  tliree  oceans  separate 
it  from  Eurasia? 

What  is  the  latitude  of  Point  Barrow? 
Of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama?  What  is  the 
greatest  range  of  latitude  of  the  main- 
land of  North  America?  In  what  zones 
does  North  America  lie?  In  what  zone 
is  most  of  it? 

Shape. — What  shape  is  North  America? 
Is  it  broadest  toward  the  north  or  toward 
the  south?  Is  its  greatest  length  from 
east  to  west  or  from  north  to  south? 

Mountains.  —  What  mountains  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States?  In 
what  direction  do  they  trend?  What 
mountains  in  the  eastern  part  of  Canada? 
In  what  direction  do  they  trend?  Begin 
at  the  southern  extremity,  and,  going 
northerly,  name  in  their  order  all  the 
mountain-ranges  on  the  western  side  of 
the  continent  from  Mexico  to  Bering 
Strait.  What  is  the  general  trend  of 
these  ranges?  What  range  is  continuous 
with  the  Sierra  Nevada  at  the  north? 
At  the  south?  Which  range  is  nearest 
the  Pacific  coast?  Is  the  region  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the'  Sierra  Ne- 
vada mountainous  or  level?  The  region 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Madre 
Mountains?  In  what  country  and  in  what 
mountain-range  is  each  of  the  following 
peaks:  Popocatepetl'  ?  Ori  za'ba?  Pikes 
Peak  ?  Fremont  Peak  ?  Blanca  Peak  ? 
Mount  Hooker?  Mount  Brown?  Mount  Whitney?  Mount  Rainier?  Mount 
Shasta?  Mount  Fairweather?  Mount  Saint  Elias?  Mount  Hecla?  Mount 
Mitchell. 

Take  next,  questions  on  Relief  Map  of  North  America,  p.  44. 

[See  Physical  Map  of  North  America.]  What  is  the  greatest  elevation 
represented  on  this  map  by  green  color?  By  light-buflF?  By  the  darker  buflF? 
What  is  the  least  elevation  represented  by  white?  By  the  darker  buff?  By 
light-buff?  What  is  the  greatest  ocean  depth  represented  by  the  lighter 
shade  of  blue?  What  is  the  least  depth  represented  by  the  darker  blue? 
Do  the  green  areas  represent  mountains  or  plains?  The  darker  buff  areas? 
What  do  red  spots  indicate? 

Which  side  of  the  map  shows  more  land  above  5,000  feet  in  elevation,  the 
eastern  or  the  western?  Which  shows  more  land  below  800  feet?  Which 
coast  shows  the  wider  strip  of  ocean  less  than  1,000  feet  deep?  What  high- 
land-system in  the  west?  In  the  east?  Which  is  the  higher?  In  which 
system  are  there  active  volcanoes?  In  what  three  directions  do  rivers  flow 
from  the  region  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior?  Would  the  elevation  increase 
or  decrease  in  going  westward  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior?  Northward? 
Southward?  Eastward?  Give  reasons  for  your  answers.  Which  slope  of 
the  Pacific  Highland  is  longer,  the  eastern  or  the  western?  Which  has  more 
rivers?  The  larger  rivers?  Is  the  Arctic  Ocean  represented  as  deep  or 
shallow?  Bering  Sea?  Which  is  represented  as  deeper,  Hudson  Bay  or 
Baffin  Bay?  If  the  sea-bottom  were  elevated  1,000  feet  what  would  be  the 
effect  on  Hudson  Bay?    On  Greenland?    On  the  West  Indies? 

Rivers. — [See  Political  Map  of  North  America.]  Begin  at  Mexico,  and 
name  in  order,  going  northerly,  all  the  rivers  of  North  America  west  of 

1.  It  is  desirable  that  the  map  should  be  open  before  the  pupil  while  reciting  these  map 
studies,  their  chief  object  being  to  teach  the  study  of  the  map. 


the  Rocky  Mountains.  Which  of  these  lie  wholly  in  valleys  west  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada?  Which  rise  in  the  Rocky  Mountains?  Begin  at  Florida, 
and  name  in  order,  going  northerly,  the  rivers  of  North  America  east  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains.     What  great  river  flows  into  the  Arctic  Ocean? 

Into  Hudson  Bay?  Into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico?  What  river-basin  between  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  and  The  Height 
of  Land?  What  two  great  river-systems 
in  Canada?  What  one  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States?  What  highlands 
bound  the  Mississippi  Basin?  Name  all 
the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  River  System. 
Where  does  the  Missouri  River  rise?  The 
Arkansas?  The  Ohio?  Into  what  do  they 
empty?  Describe  the  Ri'o  GrSn'de.  The 
Colorado.  The  Columbia.  The  Yukon.' 
Lakes.  — What  lakes  in  the  Basin  of 
the  St.  Lawrence?  Of  the  Nelson?  Of 
the  Mackenzie?  Where  is  Great  Salt 
Lake?    Has  it  an  outlet? 

Coast-Line. —  Begin  at  Panama,  and, 
going  northerly,  name  in  order  and  locate 
all  the  capes  of  tlie  Pacific  coast  of  North 
America.  All  the  peninsulas.  All  the 
islands.  All  the  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  and 
straits.  Begin  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
and,  going  northerly,  name  in  order  and 
locate  all  capes  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  All 
peninsulas.  All  islands.  All  seas,  gulfs, 
bays,  and  straits.  Where  is  Greenland? 
What  island  east  of  it?  What  islands 
west  of  it?  Where  is  Cape  Farewell? 
Point  Barrow?  Bafiin  Bay?  Hudson  Bay? 
Hudson  Strait?  The  peninsula  of  Labra- 
dor? What  peninsula  in  line  with  the 
Coast  Range  Mountains  at  the  south? . 
What  islands  and  peninsula  continue  the 
Coast  Range  northerly?  What  two  islands 
in  line  with  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia? 
What  islands  in  line  with  Florida?  With 
what  mountains  is  Yucatan  almost  in  line? 
What  peninsulas,  capes,  and  islands  help  to  inclose  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
The  Caribbe'an  Sea?  The  Guff  of  St.  Lawrence?  Bering  Sea?  The  Gulf  of 
California? 

Take  up  next,  the  map  exercises  on  North  America  in  connection  with: 
(i)  The  map  of  Ocean-Currents,  p.  27. 

(2)  The  maps  of  Thermal  Zones,  p.  22. 

(3)  The  maps  of  Barometric  Pressure,  p.  25. 

(4)  The  map  of  Rainfall,  p.  26. 

Omit  the  following  until  taking  up  Political  North  America,  page  48: 

Describe  the  situation  of  each  political  division  of  North  America,  by 
telling  in  what  part  of  the  continent  it  is  located,  and  naming  the  divisions 
of  land  and  water  surrounding  it. 

Of  what  two  islands  is  Da'nish  America  composed?  Which  extends  farther 
north?  How  can  you  tell?  In  which  part  of  Greenland  are  its  settlements? 
What  country  separates  the  United  States  from  Alaska?  In  what  direction 
from  the  United  States  is  this  country?    In  what  direction  is  Alaska? 

In  which  country  do  you  find  most  railroads?  Most  cities?  On  which 
coast  are  cities  most  numerous?  Beginning  at  Minneapolis,  find  and  name 
the  cities  located  on  the  Mississippi  River.  Which  one  of  these  cities  has 
most  railroads  entering  it?  Beginning  at  Duluth,  find  and  name  the  cities 
located  on  the  Great  Lakes  between  Canada  and  the  United  States.  In 
which  one  of  these  cities  do  the  largest  number  of  railroads  center? 

By  what  two  different  methods  of  transportation  can  goods  be  sent  from 
Chicago  to  Montreal?  New  Or  le  an§  to  Vera  Cruz?  (va'ra  kroos.)  At 
what  city  on  the  western  coast  do  nearly  all  the  trans-continental  railroads 
terminate? 

2.  To  describe  a  river,  state  the  locality  of  its  source,  the  direction  of  its  flow,  and  the 
water  into  which  it  runs. 


44 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


MAP  QUESTIONS. — Is  the  interior  of  the  continent  a  mountainous  or  a  plain  region?  The 
eastern  border?  The  western  border?  Which  mountain-system  is  the  longer,  the  eastern  or  the 
western?  Which  is  the  wider?  Which  appears  on  the  map  to  be  the  higher?  Which  appears  the  more 
complicated  system?  On  which  do  you  see  plateaus  represented?  Which  system  extends  nearer  to 
the  coast?     Compare  the  trend  of  the  ranges  in  both  systems  with  the  trend  of  the  nearest  sea-shore. 

DESCRIPTION.' 
253.   Structure.  —  North   America   is   a  typical  continent  in 
point  of  structure,  as  it  has  elevated  borders.     It  has  two  axes  of 
elevation  diverging  toward  the  north,  and  making  the  continent 
triangular  in  shape. 

2.54.  Area.— The  greatest  width  of  the  mainland  of  North 
America  is  about  3,250  miles,  in  latitude  52°  north.  The  greatest 
length  from  north  to  south  is  4,500  miles;  but  its  longest  axis, 
from  Bering  Strait  to  Panama,  is  nearly  5,500.  The  area  is  nearly 
9,000,000  square  miles  —  more  than  double  that  of  Europe  and 
not  quite  half  that  of  Eurasia.' 

HIGHI^ANDS.' 

2.55.  The  Pacific  Highland.  —  The  primary  axis  of  elevation 
in  North  America  is  the  Pacific  Highland,  trending*  southeasterly 

1.  The  foUowlng  chapter  is  not  intended  merely  to  be  committed  to  memory,  but  is 
designed  also  to  indicate  to  the  teacher  the  iimi  of  geographical  facts  that  the  pupil  should 
be  led  to  discover  from  the  accompanying  maps  and  other  sources. 

2.  North  America  is  separated  from  Asia  at  the  northwest  by  Bering  Strait,  only  40  mites 
wide  and  less  than  300  feet  deep;  and  it  is  joined  to  South  America  at  the  southeast  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  28  miles  wide  and  250  feet  high. 

3.  Before  taking  up  this  topic  it  will  be  well  carefully  to  read  again  Sees.  44  to  67. 


from  Bering  Sea  to  Panama.*  It  is  narrowest 
at  each  end  and  widens  to  about  i,ooo  miles 
in  latitude  40°  north.  It  is  lowest  at  the 
extremities,  and  reaches  its  highest  point  in 
the  Mexican  Plateau,  which  is  from  8,000  to 
9,000  feet  high,  and  has  peaks  rising  to  nearly 
18,000  feet. 

256.  The  Rocky  Mountains  comprise 
some  of  the  highest  mountain-chains  on  the 
continent,  rising  into  numerous  peaks  from 
10,000  feet  to  18,000  feet  high.  They  form 
the  great  continental  divide,  with  a  short, 
abrupt*  western  slope,  and  a  long  and  gentle 
descent  to  the  east. 

257.  The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
almost  equal  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  height, 
but  are  much  simpler  in  structure.  They 
consist  of  a  single  lofty  range  with  steep 
and  abrupt  slopes.  Numerous  high  peaks 
from  8,000  feet  to  14,000  feet  in  elevation  give 
this  range  its  character  as  a  sierra. 

258.  The  Coast  Range  Mountains  lie 

west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  closely  skirt 
the  coast  from  Lower  California  to  Alaska. 
They  are  much  lower  than  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
rising  in  general  from  2,000  feet  to  8,000  feet; 
but  they  contain  a  few  lofty  peaks.  Among 
these  are  Mount  Fairweather  and  Mount  St. 
Elias  in  Ala.ska.  The  latter  is  about  18,000 
feet  in  height,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the 
highes'-  peak  in  North  America.' 

259.  The    Rocky    Mountain     Plateau 

comprises  a  large  part  of  the  Pacific  Highland, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  plateaus  in 
the  world.     It  is  bordered  on   the   east  by 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Sierra  Madre,  Sierra  Nevada,  and 
Cascade  ranges,  and-  reaches  from  Mexico  to 
Alaska.     The   surface    is  in    general    much 
broken,  and  is  crossed  by  numerous  mount- 
ain-ranges.    Its   elevation  varies  from  2,000 
feet  in  the  north  to  8,000  feet  in  Mexico.     The  part  of  this  plateau 
lying  directly  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  is  called  the 
Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada.     It  is  several  hundred  miles 
wide  from  east  to  west,  and  rises  from  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  to  an  elevation 
of  8,000  feet  at  the  western  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and, 
unlike  other  parts  of  this  great  plateau,  it  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea. 

260.  The  Atlantic  Highland. — The  Appalachian  System,  or 
Atlantic  Highland,  is  the  secondary  axis  of  North  America.  It 
trends  southwesterly  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  nearly  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  consists  of  several  low  ranges — seldom  more 
than  2,000  feet  high — parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Its  highest  peaks  are  from  4.000  feet  to  6.700  feet.  This 
system  forms  a  secondary  continental  water-parting,  and  slopes 
gently  both  to  the  interior  and  to  the  Atlantic. 

4.  In  this  highland  there  are  three  parallel  sets  or  systems  of  ranges:  (r)  The  various 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  beginning  at  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  and  terminating  at 
Panama;  (2)  the  Sierra  Miid  re,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  Cascade  ranges;  (3)  the  Coast  Range 
and  the  coast  Islands. 

5.  The  Tarlons  ranges  of  the  Pacific  Highland  are  more  or  less  parallel  to  one  another 
and  to  the  Pacific  coast-line;  and  the  youngest  ranges  are  those  nearest  the  sea. 

*  trending:  tending  in  a  direction.  abrupt:  steep. 


PHYSICAL    NORTH  AMERICA. 


46 


261.  The  Height  of  Land. — A  third  water-parting,  giving  a 
northerly  and  a  southerly  continental  slope,  is  called  The  Height 
of  Land,  and  extends  westerly  from  Labrador  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  nowhere  exceeds  2,000  feet,  and  is,  in  places,  below 
1,000  feet.  In  Canada  it  is  called  the  Laurentian  Mountains;  and 
a  low  arm  from  it  extends  northwesterly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
separating  the  Mackenzie  River  Basin  from  the  Hudson  Bay  Basin." 

VOLCANOES  AND  MARTHQUAKMS. 

262.  Volcanoes. — There  are  numerous  active  volcanoes  in  the 
Pacific  Highland,  principally  in  Mexico  and  Alaska;  but  there  are 
none  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  excepting  in  Iceland  and  the 
West  Indies. 

263.  Earthquakes. — The  regions  of  active  volcanoes  are  also 
the  regions  where  earthquakes  are  most  frequent.  PVequent  but 
not  violent  earthquakes  occur  in  the  whole  Pacific  Coast  region. 

LOWI^ANDS. 

264.  The  Atlantic  Plain. — East  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
is  a  narrow,  sandy  coast-plain,  formed  by  the  gradual  elevation  of 
the  gently  sloping  sea-bed. 

265.  Valley  Plains  of  the  Pacific  Slope. — West  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  mountains  are  numerous  alluvial  plains  of 
limited  extent.  They  were  probably  formed  by  the  gradual  depo- 
sition of  river  sediment  in  narrow  arms  of  the  sea — like  the  Gulf 
of  California — that  filled  depressions*  resulting  from  the  recent 
upfolding  of  the  Coast  Range.' 

266.  The  Great  Central  Plain.  — The  Great  Central  Plain 
of  North  America  extends  from  the  Appalachian  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
is  one  of  the  largest  continuous  plains  in  the  world.  It  has  been 
formed  by  the  gradual  elevation  of  shallow  sea-beds,  and  has  been 
subsequently  enriched  by  alluvial  deposits  from  the  overflow  of 
numerous  rivers.'     (See  Sees.  35  to  47.) 

DRAINAGE.* 

267.  The  Northerly  Slope  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  is 

divided  by  a  low  water-parting  into  two  drainage-basins,  drained, 
respectively,  by  the  Mackenzie  River  and  the  rivers  flowing  into 
Hudson  Bay. 

268.  The   Southerly  Slope  of  the   Great   Central   Plain 

comprises  the  Mississippi  drainage-basin  and  numerous  smaller 
ones  along  the  Gulf  Plain. 

269.  The  St.  Lawrence  Basin. —  Lying  between  The  Height 
of  Land  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  and  opening  to  the  north- 
east, is  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

270.  The  Atlantic  Slope  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  is 
drained  by  numerous  small  and  distinct  river-systems  flowing 
directly  into  the  Atlantic. 

271.  Division  of  the   Western    Continental    Slope. — The 

western  continental  slope  is  divided  lengthwise  by  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  mountains  into  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau 
and  the  Pacific  Slope. 

272.  The  Plateau  Region  is  divided  by  cross  elevations  into 

1.  The  youngest  mountains  of  the  continent  are  the  coast  ranges  of  the  Pacific  Highland. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  still  undergoing  elevation.  The  Arctic  coast  is  gradually  rising, 
and  the  Atlantic  coast  is  slowly  sinking. 

2.  The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  the  Valley  of  the  Willamette  were 
undoubtedly  once  bays;  and  the  Gulf  of  California  and  Puget  Sound  will  likewise  become 
filled  with  .sediment,  and  so  converted  into  fertile  plains  in  the  future. 

3.  Though,  within  this  great  plain,  divides  more  or  less  elevated  separate  the  many  river- 
basins  which  compose  it,  they  are  not  of  sufficient  extent  or  ruggeduess  to  afford  any 
marked  highland  region,  and  the  slope  of  the  plain  into  the  great  highland  regions  on  the 
east  and  west  is  so  gradual  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible. 


several  drainage-basins,  giving  rise,  respectively,  to  the  Yukon, 
Fra'ger,  Columbia,  Colorado,  and  Gila  (he'la)  river-systems,  to  the 
interior  drainage  of  the  Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  and  to 
the  drainage  of  the  Mexican  Plateau. 

273.  The  Pacific  Slope  comprises  numerous  small  river-basins 
lying  parallel  to  the  coast.  Each  basin  is  usually  drained  by  a 
distinct  river-system.  The  Willamette  and  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  are  the  most  important  of  these  systems. 

274.  Centers  of  Elevation  and  Drainage. — There  are  two 
great  centers  of  elevation  and  drainage  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
System — one  in  latitude  40°  to  45°  north,  the  other  in  latitude 
55°  to  60°  north.  The  former  has  more  than  forty  peaks  exceeding 
12,000  feet  in  elevation,  among  which  are  Blanca  Peak,  Pikes  Peak, 
Long's  Peak,  and  Fremont  Peak.  It  gives  rise  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  Missouri,  Yellowstone,  Platte,  Arkansas,  Rio  Grande,  Colo- 
rado, and  Snake  rivers.  The  latter  culminates*  in  Mounts  Brown 
(16,000  feet)  and  Hooker  (16,750  feet),  and  gives  rise  to  the  Sas- 
katchewan, Peace,  Mackenzie,  Yukon,  Eraser,  and  Columbia. 

I,AKES. 

275.  Position. — The  lakes  of  North  America  lie  principally 
upon  the  northern  slope,  and  many  of  them  owe  their  origin  to 
glacial  action. 

276.  The  Great  Lakes. — Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron, 
St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  Ontario  are  called  the  Great  Lakes.  Thej-  are 
situated  upon  The  Height  of  Land,  and  occupy  depressions  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  channel  of  the  St.  Lawrence.' 

The  bed  of  Lake  Superior  was  probably  a  depression  in  the 
shallow  sea-bottom  that  was  elevated  to  form  the  Great  Central 
Plain,  but  the  basins  of  the  other  Great  Lakes  are  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  by  glacial  erosion." 

277.  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  lakes  of  Nevada  are  the  remains 
of  a  series  of  great  fresh-water  lakes  that  once  existed  in  the  Great 
Basin,  and  that  were  drained  into  the  basin  of  the  Columbia. 

By  the  elevation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  the  moist 
winds  from  the  Pacific  were  partially  excluded  from  the  Great 
Basin;  and  as  a  result  the  rainfall  became  less  than  the  evaporation, 
and  the  lakes — Lake  Bonneville  in  Utah  and  Lake  Lahontan  in 
Nevada — were  reduced  in  size  and  became  salty  or  alkaUne.' 

OCEANS. 

278.  Position. — North  America  is  inclosed  and  separated  from 
Eurasia  by  three  oceans — the  Arctic  on  the  north,  the  Atlantic  on 
the  east,  and  the  Pacific  on  the  west. 

279.  Relation  of  Ocean-Beds  to.  Continental  Slopes. — As 
is  the  case  with  all  continents,  the  largest  ocean,  the  Pacific,  is 
adjacent  to  the  greatest  development  of  mountains,  the  Pacific 
Highland;  and  the  degree  of  inclination*  of  each  seaward*  slope 
of  the  land  is  continued  beneath  the  shore-line  of  the  sea.  (See 
profile  section  of  North  America  and  Ocean-Depth  Map,  p.  ig.) 
The  steep  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range  rise  abruptly*  from  deep  .sea; 
the  almost  level  Arctic  Plain' is  continued  as  the  shallow  sea-bottom 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean;  and  the  gently  sloping  coast-plain  of  the 
Atlantic  is  continued  from  100  to  200  miles  beyond  the  shore. 

4.  Before  taking  up  this  topic  read  carefully  the  chapter  on  water,  p.  i6. 

5.  A  similar  series  of  lakes  extends  along  the  divide  between  the  Mackenzie  and  Hudson 
Bay  basins. 

0.  These  lakes  ser\*e  as  reser\*oirs  for  the  surplus  of  water  in  times  of  melting  snow  and 
excessive  rain,  and  thus  prevent  floods  in  the  lower  course  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  They  also 
serve  as  "settlers,"  leaving  the  St.  Lawrence  a  river  of  comparatively  clear  water. 

7.  The  ancient  lake-shore  of  these  lakes  may  be  plainly  seen  as  a  horizontal  line  along 
the  mountain  sides  of  Nevada  and  Utah,  several  hundred  feet  above  the  present  shore-line. 

*  degressions:  hollows.  culminates:  reaches  its  highest  point. 

inclination:  slant.  seaward:  toward  the  sea.  abruptly:  precipitously;  steeply. 


46 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


COAST-lINBS.^ 

280.  The  Pacific  Coast-Line. — As  there  are  no  western  spurs 
to  the  Pacific  Highland  the  Pacific  coast  is  little  broken,  and  has 
but  few  capes  and  peninsulas.  The  projecting  ends  of  mountain- 
ranges  inclose  Bering  Sea,  and  form  the  capes,  peninsulas,  islands, 
bays,  and  sounds  of  Alaska  and  Lower  CaUfomia;  and  the  Pacific 
Coast  islands  are  partially  submerged  portions  of  the  Coast  Range. 

281.  The  Arctic  Coast-Line. — The  Arctic  Archipelago  is  a 
low  plateau  with  numerous  submerged  valleys  forming  shallow 
baj's  and  sounds.  Greenland  is  a  glacier-covered  plateau  trending 
parallel  to  the  Rockj-  Mountains,  and  its  western  coast  is  cut  into 
numerous  fiords  by  glaciers  that  push  down  its  steep  slopes  to  the 
sea  and  form  icebergs.  Baffin  Bay  is  the  valley  between  Greenland 
and  the  Arctic  Plateau.' 

282.  The  Atlantic  Coast-Line. — Hudson  Bay  and  the  gulfs 
of  St.  Lawrence  and  Mexico  are  the  submerged  ends  of  drainage- 
basins,  and  the  capes,  peninsulas,  and  islands  inclosing  them  are 
the  projecting  ends  of  highlands  that  form  the  bounding  water- 
partings.  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland  are  outlying  portions 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  Yucatan  and  Cuba  form  one  side- 
spur  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  System,  and  Cajie  Gra'd  os  a  Di'os  and 
Jamaica,  another;  while  Florida  and  the  Bahamas  form  a  line  of 
elevation  that  intersects*  the  Appalachian  axis.  Iceland  is  an 
oceanic  island  of  volcanic  origin. 

The  islands,  capes,  and  peninsulas  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
Cape  Cod  to  Florida  are  low  and  sandj-,  and  have  been  formed  by 
the  action  of  the  ocean- tides  and  -currents  upon  the  sands  dej)osited 
at  the  river-mouths;  the  bays  thej'  inclose  are  shallow,  and  are 
only  preserved  from  rapidly  filling  up  with  sediment  by  the  action 
of  the  tides.' 

CI^IMATE.* 

283.  In  the  Frigid  Zone. — The  great  extent  of  North  America 
in  latitude  gives  it  wide  extremes  of  climate.  Within  the  Arctic 
Circle  the  sun's  rays  strike  the  earth  verj-  slantingly,  even  in  mid- 
summer, and  a  continuous  night,  varj'ing  from  twentj'-four  hours 
at  the  Polar  Circle  to  nearly  six  months  at  the  North  Pole,  makes 
the  winters  cold  extreme.'  Ice  and  snow  prevail  nearly  every- 
where throughout  the  year. 

284.  In  the  Torrid  Zone. — In  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
where  the  sun's  rays  are  alwa  j-s  either  vertical  or  nearly  so,iitropical 
heat  prevails  perpetuallj'  in  the  lowlands;  but  every  variety  of 
climate  from  tropical  heat  to  frigid  cold  may  be  experienced  in 
ascending  the  high  mountains  and  table-lands. )  Popocatepetl  and 
Orizaba,  surrounded  by  tropical  fruits  at  their  base,  bear  aloft  a 
summit  of  barren  snow.     (See  Sees.  112,  113.) 

285.  In  the  Temperate  Zone. — The  wide  expanse  of  land  in 
the  Temperate  Zone  causes  great  seasonal  extremes  of  temperature, 
from  almost  frigid  cold  under  the  slanting  ra3"S  of  the  winter  sun 
to  almost  tropical  heat  under  the  nearly  vertical  rays  of  summer.* 

286.  Influence  of  Winds  and  Mountains. — The  warm  and 
moist  trade-winds  cause  an  abundant'  rainfall  in  the  West  Indies, 

1.  Before  taking  up  this  topic  read  carefully  Sees.  67  to  76. 

2.  An  elevation  of  1,000  feet  would  make  land-surface  of  Bering;  Sea  and  much  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean ;  would  add  Newfoundland,  Greenland,  the  Arctic  Archipelago,  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  islands  to  the  continent,  and  make  lakes  of  Melville  Sound  and  Hudson  Bay; 
would  connect  North  .\merica  to  .^sia  by  an  isthmus  i.ooo  miles  wide,  and  leave  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Savannah  200  miles  from  the  sea<roast.  An  elevation  of  6.000 
feet  would  extend  the  continent  nearly  to  the  North  Pole,  and  would  join  it  to  South 
America  by  a  plateau  1,000  miles  wide,  upon  which  the  deepest  ports  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbe'an  Sea  would  appear  as  great  lakes. 

3.  The  AtlanUc  coast  is  much  more  irregular  than  the  Pacific  coast:  it  is  therefore  much 
better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  commerce.  Many  of  its  irregularities  arise  not  so  much 
from  its  elevation  systems,  as  from  the  fact  that  the  Atlantic  Slope  is  a  very  old  plain- 
tcgion,  and  its  rivers  have  had  time  to  make  extensive  river-month  formations. 


Central  America,  and  upon  the  eastern  slopes  of  Mexico;  but  the 
Mexican  Plateau  is  rendered  almost  rainless  and  barren  by  the  high 
mountains  that  intercept  the  winds  on  its  eastern  border. 

The  southwest  anti-trade-winds  of  the  Temperate  Zone  carry 
moisture  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
heavy  rainfall  in  this  zone  is  consequently  upon  the  western  slopes 
of  the  highlands.  The  Great  Basin  east  of  the  high  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains,  and  the  plains  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  high  Rocky 
Mountains,  have  the  lightest  rainfall  on  the  continent:  and  vege- 
tation and  animal  life  are  accordingly  sparse  in  those  regions.  All 
other  portions  of  the  continent  within  the  Temperate  Zone  have 
abundant  rainfall,  and  consequently  abundant  life. 

287.  Influence  of  Ocean-Currents.— The  climate  of  North 
America  is  afiected  by  three  ocean-currents — the  Gulf-Stream, 
the  Japan  Current,  and  the  Labrador  Current.  The  Gulf-Stream 
carries  warmth  from  tropical  latitudes  along  the  eastern  coast  as 
far  north  as  latitude  40°,  where  it  is  met  by  the  Labrador  Cuntnt, 
bringing  Arctic  cold  from  the  north.  The  western  coast  is  washed 
by  the  warm  Japan  Current  from  Alaska  to  Mexico;  and,  in  con- 
sequence, the  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  north  of  40°  is  much 
warmer  than  that  of  equal  latitudes  along  the  Atlantic. 

PRODUCTIONS  AND  INHABITANTS. 

288.  Within  the  Frigid  Zone  the  vegetation  consists  almost 
entirely  of  mosses  and  lichens.  There  are  consequent!}-  few 
animals  on  land;  but  whales,  seals,  and  fish  abound  in  the  sea. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  the  yellow  type;  the  Eskimos  in  the 
east  and  the  Aleuts  in  the  west  are  the  most  important  tribes. 

The  severe  struggle  for  existence  has  developed  the  sturdy  body 
and  stolid  mind  of  the  Eskimo.  His  ambition  is  limited  to  pro- 
viding himself  with  the  necessities  of  life;  and  consequently  there 
is  no  advance  toward  civilization. 

289.  Within  the  Torrid  Zone  tropical  vegetation  abounds,  but 
there  are  few  native  animals  of  importance  to  man.  Dark-whites 
and  negroes  have  almost  wholly  taken  the  place  of  the  Indian 
tribes  (yellow  type)  that  once  occupied  this  region.  In  this  win- 
terless  land  nature's  bounty  supplies  the  wants  of  man  throughout 
the  year.  The  easy  conditions  of  life  have  developed  the  easy- 
going character  of  tropical  peoples,  and  progress  in  civilization  is 
consequentl}-  slow. 

290.  In  the  Temperate  Zone. — All  lowland  regions  of  the 
Temperate  Zone  as  far  north  as  55°  are  fertile  agfricultural  lands, 
producing  the  grains  and  fruits  most  necessarj-  to  man.  A  g^eat 
variety  of  native  animals  is  found,  and  nearly  all  domestic  animals 
thrive.  The  mountains  are  rich  in  useful  and  precious  minerals; 
fine  forests  occur  where  the  rainfall  is  most  abundant;  and  numerous 
rivers  furnish  excellent  facilities  for  commerce  and  manufactures. 
The  principal  human  inhabitants  are  of  the  white  types;  and  the 
invigorating  effect  of  the  alternating  seasons  produces  a  rapid 
development  of  the  arts  and  sciences  of  ci\-ilization  unequaled 
elsewhere  on  the  globe — a  development  afiecting  even  the  scattering 
representatives  of  the  black  and  the  yellow  types  found  there. 

4.  Before  taking  up  this  topic  read  carefully  the  chapter  on  climate,  p.  6. 

5.  The  Bun  la  in  sight  about  iSS  days  at  the  North  Pole  and  about  iSi  days  at  the  South 
Pole.  On  account  of  the  bending  of  the  rays  of  light  by  the  air,  the  sun  shines  with  its 
whole  disk  upon  both  poles  for  about  twenty-four  hours  near  the  30th  of  March,  and  again 
for  the  same  length  of  time  about  the  2ist  of  September.  Morning  and  evening  twilight 
together  last  about  four  months  at  the  poles.  Sunlight  is  entirely  absent  at  the  North 
Pole  about  two  months.  The  moon  and  the  planets  do  not  shine  in  the  polar  nights.  (See 
Astronomical  Geography.) 

6.  A  namwer  eontlnant  wonld  have  less  violent  extremes  of  temperature  during  the 
year,  because  its  interior  being  less  remote  from  the  sea  its  climate  would  be  more  nearly 
oceanic  in  character.  As  land  absorbs  heat  more  rapidly  than  water  in  summer,  and  paris 
with  it  more  rapidly  in  winter,  all  large  continuous  bodies  of  land  in  Temperate  Zones  are 
subject  to  great  variations  of  temperature  *  mttrsgcU:  cuXa  s 


PHYSICAL    NORTH    AMERICA. 


47 


PBVMLOPMJSNT  OF  THM  CONTINMNT. 

291.  Changes  in  Physical  Features. — The  physical  features 
of  North  America  are  constantly  but  slowly  changing,  due  to  the 
erosive  action  of  water  and  the  forces  that  elevate  the  coast-lines 
of  continents  and  upfold  mountain-ranges.  (See  Sees.  35  to  50.) 
The  accompanying  diagrams  show  four  stages  in  the  past  develop- 
ment of  the  continent. 

292.  The  Laurentian  Continent. — In  Fig.  i  the  white  repre- 
sents the  first  land-areas — a  V-shaped  continent,  inclosing  Hudson 
Bay,  and  a  number  of  outlying  islands.  The  continental  portion 
is  known  as  the  original  continent  of  North  America,  or  the 
Laurentian  Continent.  It  consists  of  rocks  that  are  in  general 
unstratified  and  not  fossil-bearing. 
The  pink  indicates  all  that  portion 
which  now  consists  of  stratified, 
fossil-bearing  rocks,  and  is  thereby- 
known  to  have  been  at  some  time 
sea-bottom.  The  two  arms  of  this 
continent  are  at  present  the  water- 
partings  between  the  Hudson  Bay 
Basin  and  the  basins  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Mackenzie. 

29.S.  Other  Stages  of  Develop- 
ment.—  The  successive  changes  in 
size  and  shape  shown  in  Figs.  2,  3, 
and  4  were  not  brought  about 
suddenly,  but  by  gradual  upheaval 
caused  by  lateral  pressure,  and  by  the 
washing  down  to  the  sea-shore  of 
the  elevated  parts  of  the  continent 
through  erosion  by  rivers — the  same 
slow  and  gradual  processes  that  have 
produced  and  are  producing  similar 
effects  elsewhere.  Observe  that  the 
new  coast-lines  in  each  figure  are 
nearly  or  quite  parallel  to  the  old 

coast-lines,  and  that  the  general  shape  of  the  continent  at  each 
stage  is  the  same  as  at  first'.  Also,  observe  that  the  elevation  axes 
of  the  present  continent  are  parallel  to  the  arms,  or  axes,  of  the 
original  continent. 

QUESTIONS. 

Structure. — Why  is  North  America  typical  in  structure? 

Area. — What  is  the  area  of  North  America?  Its  greatest  length?  Its 
greatest  width?    Compare  it  with  Europe  iu  area.     With  Eurasia. 

Highlands. — Describe  the  Pacific  Highland.  The  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Coast  Range.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau. 
The  Great  Basin.  The  Appalachian  System.  The  Height  of  Land.  Where 
are  there  volcanoes  in  North  America? 

Lowlands. — Describe  the  Atlantic  Plain.  The  Pacific  Slope  Valley  Plains. 
The  Great  Central  Plain. 

Drainage.^ — What  two  drainage-basins  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Great 
Central  Plain?  What  one  on  the  southern  slope?  What  basin  lies  between 
The  Height  of  Land  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains?  Describe  the  Atlantic 
Slope  drainage.  Describe  the  Pacific  Slope  drainage.  Describe  the  drainage 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau.  What  two  centers  of  drainage  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains?    What  rivers  rise  in  each? 

Lakes. — Where  are  the  Great  Lakes?  Name  them.  Are  they  fresh  or  salt? 
\Vhat  lakes  in  the  Mackenzie  Basin?  Where  is  Great  Salt  Lake?  Was  it 
ever  a  fresh-water  lake?    Why  is  it  salt? 

Oceans. — What  oceans  inclose  North  America?  Which  is  largest?  Deep- 
est? Shallowest?  Which  is  adjacent  to  the  highest  mountains?  Which  to 
low  plains? 

Coast-Line. — Describe  the  Pacific  coast-line.  The  Arctic.  The  Atlantic. 
Which  is  most  regular?    Which  is  near^t  to  mountains? 


Climate.— Describe  the  climate  of  North  America  in  the  Frigid  Zone.  In 
the  Torrid  Zone.  In  the  Temperate  Zone.  Why  are  the  extremes  of  temper- 
ature great  in  the  Temperate  Zone? 

Explain  the  rainfall  of  the  West  Indies.  Of  eastern  Mexico.  Of  the 
Mexican  Plateau.  Of  the  Great  Basin.  Of  the  plains  at  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  What  effect  has  the  Japan  Current  on  the  climate 
of  the  Pacific  Coast?  What  effect  has  the  Labrador  Current  on  the  climate 
of  the  eastern  coast? 

What  parts  of  North  America  have  vertical  sun  at  some  time  during  the 
year?  What  parts  have  most  slanting  sun's  rays?  What  parts  have  longest 
days?  Longest  nights?  What  variety  of  climate  in  Mexico  due  to 
altitude? 

Productions  and  Inhabitants.—  Describe  the  plants  of  the  Frigid  Zone. 
What  animals  are  abundant  there?  To  what  type  do  the  Eskimos  belong? 
The  Aleuts?    Why  are  the  Eskimos  little  advanced  in  civilization?    To  what 

types  do  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropical 
regions  of  North  America  belong?  Are 
they  much  or  little  advanced  in  civil- 
ization? What  type  prevails  in  the 
temperate  regions  of  North  America? 
Why  does  civilization  thrive  there? 

Thought  Questions. — Which  rises  in 
liigher  mountains,  the  Ohio  River  or 
the  Missouri?  Which  erodes  the  more? 
Which  carries  the  more  detritus?  Does 
the  St.  Lawrence  carry  much  or  little 
detritus  to  its  mouth?  Why?  Which 
is  more  liable  to  floods,  the  St.  Lawrence 
or  the  Ohio?  Why?  What  two  great 
rivers  of  North  America  have  deltas? 
Why?  What  change  of  climate  would 
make  a  fresh-water  lake  of  Great  Salt 
Lake?  Explain  why.  Are  the  Great 
Lakes  becoming  deeper  or  shallower? 
Is  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  becoming  larger 
or  smaller? 

Which  are  the  younger,  the  Coast 
Range  or  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains? 
How  do  you  know?  Why  are  earth- 
quakes more  frequent  along  the  Pacific 
coast  than  along  the  Atlantic?  Why 
are  earthquakes  frequent  in  the  West 
j,-ij..  .4  Indies?    Will  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mount- 

ains probably  become  higher  or  lower 
in  the  future?    Why  do  yon  think  so?    The  Coast  Range?    Why? 

What  islands  would  become  part  of  the  continent  if  an  elevation  of  1,000 
feet  should  take  place?  Where  would  a  new  lake  be  made  in  Canada?  What 
continent  would  be  joined  to  North  America?  What  changes  in  the  shape 
of  the  continent  would  be  produced  by  a  subsidence  of  1,000  feet? 

If  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  were  low  mountains,  what  effect  would  be 
produced  upon  the  climate  of  the  Great  Basin?  If  the  United  States  were 
in  the  Torrid  Zone,  where  would  be  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  North  America? 
Would  the  rainfall  of  California  be  heavy  or  light?     Why? 

Why  are  the  extremes  of  temperature  throughout  the  year  greater  in  the 
interior  of  North  America  than  they  are  over  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean?  If 
North  America  were  widest  at  the  south  and  narrow  at  the  north,  would  the 
extremes  of  temperature  be  greater  or  less  than  they  are  now?  Why  is 
Sitka  warmer  than  Labrador?    San  Francisco  than  New  York? 

Exercises  and  Problems. — Model  each  mountain-system  of  North  America 
in  sand.     Make  a  sketch-map  of  the  mountain-systems  of  North  America. 

Make  a  sketch-map  of  the  Mississippi  River  System.  Of  the  Mackenzie 
System.     Of  the  St.  Lawrence  System.     Of  the  Atlantic  Slope  drainage. 

Model  North  America  in  sand  to  show  mountain-systems  and  drainage- 
basins  and  -areas.  Make  a  sketch-map  of  North  America  to  show  mountain- 
systems  and  drainage-systems. 

(What  is  the  difference  between  a  drainage-basin  and  a  drainage-system?) 
Make  a  profile  section  of  North  America  from  New  Orleans  to  Point  Bar- 
row.     From  New  Orleans  through  Chicago.     From  Mobile  through  the 
White  Mountains.     In  the  latitude  of  San  F'rancisco.     Of  San  Di  e'go.     Of 
Sitka.     From  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Bering  Strait. 

Measure  with  your  rule  from  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  to  New  Gua(gaw)te- 
ma'la.  From  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  to  Cape  Roman'zof.  From  Cape  Romanzof 
to  New  Guatemala.  Use  scale  of  miles  to  determine  length  in  miles  of  each 
side  of  the  above  right-angled  triangle.  Compute  the  area  of  this  triangle, 
to  find  the  approximate  area  of  North  America. 


48 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


POLITICAL  NORTH  AMERICA. 


DESCRIPTION.' 
ABORIGINES. 

294.  Classes.  —  North  America,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  occupied  by  peoples  of  the  yellow 
type.  These  were  the  Aztecs,  Zii'nig,  Pueb'log,  North  American 
Indians,  and  Eskimos.  These  peoples  varied  greatly  in  habits, 
appearance,  and  grade  of  civilization. 

295.  Aztecs,  Zunis,  Pueblos. — The  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  and 
the  Pueblos  and  Zunis  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  had  reached 
quite  a  high  state  of  civilization.  They  occupied  well-built  cities, 
containing  buildings  of  stone  and  sun-burned  brick,  called  ado'be. 
They  cultivated  the  land  extensively,  worked  the  mines  for  their 
abundant  treasures  of  gold  and  silver,  and  manufactured  paper, 
cloth,  and  implements  of  bronze.  The  records  of  their  laws, 
domestic  relations,  and  religious  observances  were  preserved  by 
means  of  an  imperfect  form  of  hieroglyphic*  writing. 

296.  The  North  American  Indians  occupied  the  central  part 
of  North  America,  and  were  in  a  lower  social  condition  than  their 
southwestern  neighbors.  They  lived  in  huts  or  wigjwams,  and 
subsisted  principally  by  hunting  and  fishing.  They  have  receded 
before  the  ever-extending  settlements  of  white  men,  until  they  are 
now  mostly  confined  to  reservations  in  the  west-central  United 
States  and  northern  Canada.' 

297.  The  Eskimos. — The  cold,  northern  portion  of  North 
America  was  found  thinly  populated  by  Eskimos.  They  are  a 
good-natured,  squal'id*  people,  who  dwell  in  huts  built  half  under- 
ground, and  made  of  stones,  earth,  and  bones.  For  winter  purposes 
they  make  their  huts  of  snow  and  ice.  The  scant  supply  of  food- 
products,  and  the  extreme  climate,  make  the  struggle  for  existence 
so  severe  that  there  is  little  room  for  progress  in  education,  culture, 
and  refinement.  The  only  occupation  of  these  people  is  hunting 
the  few  animals  of  that  region;  which  furnish  their  food,  clothing, 
fuel,  and  light.' 

PRESENT  POPULATION. 

298.  The  Present  Population  of  North  America  consists 
mostly  of  immigrants  who  have  come  from  the  eastern  continents, 
and  their  descendants. 

299.  The  Europeans  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  southern 
Canada,  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  the  Central  American 
States. 

300.  The  Asiatics  are  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 

301.  The  Africans  are  descendants  of  negroes  who  were 
origfinally  brought  to  the  continent  for  purposes  of  slaver^'.  They 
predominate  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States,  Central 
America,  and  the  West  India  Islands. 

INDUSTRIES. 

302.  Agriculture. — The  industries  of  North  America  have 
developed  in  accordance  with  the  geographical  character  of  the 
immediate  surrounding  country-.  In  the  well-watered  land  of  the 
Great  Central  Plain,  the  fertile  lowlands  along  the  coast,  and  in 
the  rich  river-valleys,  agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation. 

1.  Before  reading  this  descriptioa.  study  omitted  map  questions,  p.  43. 

2.  The  noted  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  with  the  relics  that  they  contain,  show 
that  the  country  was  occupied,  at  an  earlier  period,  by  a  people  possessing  a  much  higher 
civilization  than  those  found  by  the  first  white  settlers. 

3.  The  entire  Eskimo  population  of  the  world  uumbers  hut  about  40.000. 


303.  Manufactures.— The  portion  of  the  Atlantic  Slope 
between  the  39th  and  44th  parallels  of  latitude  possesses  abun- 
dant water-power,  cheap  fuel,  and  good  transportation  facilities; 
here  are  the  most  extensive  manufacturing  pursuits  of  North 
America. 

304.  Stock-Raising.— -Upon  the  higher  and  more  thinly  settled 
agricultural  land  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
stock-raising  is  the  leading  industry. 

305.  Mining. — The  natural  resources  of  the  mountain-regions 
mainly  consist  in  mineral  deposits;  hence,  the  chief  occupation  is 
mining. 

306.  Lumbering  is  extensive  in  the  forest  districts  of  the 
Alleghanies,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  North  Pacific  Coast,  in 
places  possessing  good  waterways  or  sea-ports. 

307.  Fishing. — Many  people  living  near  coast-  and  river-waters 
are  largely  engaged  in  fishing. 

308.  Commerce. — The  exchange  of  the  surplus  products  of 
these  industries  among  the  different  sections  of  the  country  and 
with  foreign  countries  has  developed  a  trade  which  ranks  North 
America  second  only  to  Europe  in  the  extent  of  her  commerce. 

RELIGION. 

309.  Pagans. — The  Indians,  Eskimos,  and  the  Asiatics  are 
pagans,  with  the  exception  of  those  converted  to  Christianity  by 
Christian  missionaries. 

310.  Christians. — With  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  the  pre- 
vailing religion  is  Christianity. 

POIITICAI,  DIVISIONS. 

311.  Names  of  Divisions.— The  political  divisions  of  North 
America  are  Danish  America;  the  Dominion  of  Canada;  New- 
foundland; the  United  States,  including  Alaska;  Mexico;  the 
Central  American  States;  and  the  West  India  Islands,  which  are 
mostly  under  the  influence  of  various  European  nations. 

DANISH  AMERICA. 

312.  Greenland  belongs  to  Denmark,  and  is  ruled  by  two 
governors,  appointed  by  the  king  of  Denmark. 

The  only  habitable  part  of  Greenland  consists  of  a  narrow  strip 
of  lowland  along  the  southwestern  coast,  the  remainder  being  a 
desolate  expanse  covered  with  glaciers  during  the  entire  year. 
The  population  consists  of  about  sixty  small  Danish  trading- 
stations  and  a  few  scattering  Eskimo  settlements. 

The  exports  consist  of  oil,  furs,  fish,  ^I'der-down,  and  cr>'olite,  a 
mineral  from  which  soda  is  made. 

The  chief  trading-stations  are  Godthaab  and  Godhaven,  where 
the  governors  reside. 

313.  Iceland  is  of  volcanic  formation,  and  is  celebrated  for  its 
volcanoes,  geysers,  and  hot  springs.*  The  interior  is  a  barren, 
rocky  plateau,  sloping  toward  the  north  and  south.  The  lowlands 
produce  grasses  and  dwarf  shrubs. 

Rivers  are  numerous;  but  are  short,  rapid,  and  innavigable. 

The  climate  is  greatly  modified  by  a  branch  from  the  Gulf-Stream. 
It  is  much  warmer  than  that  of  Greenland  and  North  America  in 
the  same  latitude,  and  greatly  resembles  that  of  Norway. 

4.  The  chief  volcano.  Mount  Hecla,  is  one  of  the  celebrated  volcanoes  of  the  world. 
Near  it  is  the  chief  geyser  region.  Within  a  circuit  of  two  miles  there  are  more  than  one 
hundred  hot  springs  and  geysers.  The  principal  one,  Great  Geyser,  periodically  ejects  a 
column  of  water  to  the  height  of  nearly  loo  feeL 

•  kieroglypkic  ttiriting:  a  writing  by  pictures.  $yvaiid:  extremely  dirty. 


PHYSICAL   UNITED    STATES. 


49 


The  Arctic  fox  is  the  only  native  land  animal,  but  the  shores 
swarm  with  water-fowl,  chief  among  which  is  the  eider-duck. 

Iceland  ponies,  cattle,  and  sheep  thrive  in  the  coast  valleys. 

The  island  belongs  to  Denmark,  and  its  laws  are  made  at 
Copenhagen  and  enforced  by  a  governor-general  appointed  by  the 
king. 

The  people,  who  are  chiefly  of  Scandinavian*  descent,  live  near 
the  coast,  and  are  farmers  and  fishers.  In  summer,  all  work  at 
hay-making.  In  winter,  the  men  fish  and  the  women  spin  and 
weave  wool. 

The  exports  are  fish,  oil,  wool,  and  feathers. 

Within  the  island,  all  travel  and  trade  are  carried  on  entirely 
by  means  of  pack  ponies.  All  exports  are  sent  to  Denmark  in 
government  vessels. 

The  chief  town  is  R^i'kiavik,  which  has  about  2,500  inhabitants. 

QUESTIONS. 

Aborigines. — By  what  type  of  men  was  North  America  occupied  at  the 
time  of  its  discovery?  Where  were  the  Pueblos  found?  The  Aztecs?  The 
Zunis?  Of  what  were  their  houses  made?  Have  you  ever  seen  an  adobe 
house?  If  so,  where?  How  did  it  look?  By  whom  was  it  made?  Which 
of  the  natives  occupying  North  America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  were 
savage?  What  has  become  of  most  of  them?  Where  were  the  Eskimos 
found?    Describe  their  dwellings.     Their  occupation.     Why  are  they  not 


better  educated  and  more  refined?  Why  have  they  not  railroads?  Why  do 
they  not  build  stone-,  brick-,  or  wood-houses? 

Present  Population. — Who  constitute  the  present  population  of  North 
America?  What  of  Europeans  in  North  America?  Of  Asiatics?  Of 
Africans? 

Industries. — Where  is  agriculture  the  leading  occupation?  Why?  Where 
is  manufacturing  most  largely  pursued?  Why?  Find  on  the  map  the  par- 
allels of  39°  and  44°.  Where  is  stock-raising  the  leading  industry?  Mining? 
Why?    Where  is  lumbering  chiefly  carried  on? 

Religion. — Describe  the  religion  of  the  people  of  North  America. 

Political  Divisions. — Name  the  political  divisions  of  North  America. 

Danish  America. — Of  Greenland,  describe;  The  government;  the  habit- 
able part;  locality  of  population;  exports.  0/ Iceland,  Aescrihe:  Formation; 
distinction;  interior;  vegetation;  climate;  animals;  inhabitants;  occupa- 
tions; exports;  towns. 

Original  Studies — Aborigines.  —Have  you  ever  seen  any  Indians?  How 
did  they  look?  How  did  they  live?  Were  they  friendly  to  white  people? 
Look  on  the  map  of  types  of  men  and  find  in  what  part  of  North  America 
the  Eskimos  live.  Have  you  read  anything  about  Eskimos?  What  animals 
do  you  think  they  hunt?  What  do  they  eat?  Of  what  do  you  think  their 
clothing  is  made? 

Industries. — What  kind  of  land  is  best  for  farming  purposes?  Make  a  list 
of  as  many  different  kinds  of  farming  as  you  know.  Have  you  ever  been 
in  a  mine  or  in  a  lumbering  camp?  Tell  about  them.  What  kinds  offish 
have  you  eaten?  Where  did  they  come  from?  Write  the  names  of  as  many 
fish  products  as  you  know. 


PHYSICAL  UNITED   STATES. 


DESCRIPTION.' 

314.  Position  and  Extent.— The  United  States  constitutes  the 
central  third  of  North  America,  and  has  an  area  of  a  little  more 
than  3,500,000  square  miles,  equal  to  that  of  all  Europe.  It  com- 
prises nearly  all  of  the  Appalachian  Highland  and  Atlantic  Plain, 
all  the  southern  slope  of  the  Great  Central  Plain,  the  grandest 
development  of  the  Pacific  Highland,  and  nearly  all  the  Pacific 
Slope  valleys.^ 

315.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  generally  not  highly  fertile,  and  is 
rocky  at  the  north  and  sandy  or  swampy  toward  the  south.  Its 
rivers  are  short  and  rapid  and  carry  their  detritus  beyond  their 
mouths,  where  it  is  built  by  tidal  action  into  long,  narrow  sand- 
banks parallel  to  the  shore;  and  these  become  in  turn  islands  and 
peninsulas,  inclosing  shallow  bays  or  sounds,  which  by  gradual 
filling  become  lagoons,  then  salt  marshes,  and  finally  firm  land. 

816.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  are  the  oldest  mountains 
of  the  continent,  and  have  been  subjected  to  great  erosion,  furnish- 
ing materials  for  the  Atlantic  Plain  and  the  Mississippi  Basin. 

317.  The  Central  Plain.— Nearly  one  halfof  the  United  States 
proper  lies  in  the  Great  Central  Plain;  and  this  portion  of  the  plain 
is  one  of  the  most  extensive  productive  regions  of  the  world.  The 
Red  River  of  the  North  and  a  few  small  streams  draining  into  the 
St.  L,awrence  Basin  are  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  almost  im- 
perceptible water-shed;  while  the  southern  slope  comprises  the 
Mississippi  Basin  and  the  eastern  and  western  gulf  slopes. 


318.  The  Mississippi  River  Basin  is  triangular  in  shape,  the 
Ohio  draining  one  angle,  the  Missouri  another,  and  the  apex*  is 
at  the  Gulf  It  comprises  more  than  1,000,000  square  miles,  and 
among  the  river-basins  of  the  world  is  second  only  to  that  of  the 
Amazon  in  extent.  It  contains  the  longest  river  in  the  world — 
the  Missouri-Mississippi — which  is  4,200  miles  long;  and  it  has 
35,000  miles  of  navigable  water. 

The  lower  course  of  the  Mississippi,  for  1,000  miles  from  its 
mouth,  has  little  fall,  and  its  annual  overflows  have  built  rich 
alluvial  plains  and  a  delta  covering  1 2,000  square  miles.  The  three 
principal  mouths  of  the  delta  project  far  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
which  is  being  rapidly  converted  into  land-surface  by  the  immense 
quantity  of  detritus  carried  itito  it.' 

319.  The  Pacific  Highland. — One  third  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  lies  in  the  Pacific  Highland,  which  here  attains  a 
width  of  1,000  miles,  and  rises  into  numerous  peaks  from  10,000 
feet  to  15,000  feet  in  height.  Upon  the  Great  Rocky  Mountain 
Plateau  lie  the  basins  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Colorado,  and  the 
Great  Interior  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada.  The  surface  of  this 
plateau  is  much  broken  and  generally  barren;'  and  it  is  valuable 
principally  for  its  extensive  deposit  of  minerals. 

320.  The  Pacific  Slope  region  of  the  United  States  is  mostly 
mountainous,  but  contains  numerous  large  and  fertile  valley-plains. 
The  influence  of  the  Japan  Current  renders  its  climate  much 
more  genial*  than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the  United  States  in 
equal  latitudes. 


1.  Before  reading  the  description,  take  map  studies  on  page  51. 

2.  The  United  States  has  so  wide  a  range  in  latitude  and  longitude,  and  such  varied  con- 
ditions of  surface,  that  it  is  in  a  high  degree  self-sustaining*  Every  necessity  of  life  and 
almost  every  comfort  and  luxury  of  tropic,  temperate,  or  polar  production  are  found  within 
its  territory.  Two  thirds  of  its  boundary  line  is  contiguous*  to  vast  bodies  of  water  that 
protect  it  from  foreign  invasion  and  facilitate  commerce  with  other  nations.  With  few 
exceptions,  its  rivers  lie  wholly  within  its  boundaries,  and  furnish  more  than  50,000  miles 
of  navigable  waters  opening  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  Atlantic — the  great  commer- 
cial highway  of  the  world. 

3.  The  banks  of  the  Mississippi  are  built  up  by  sediment  above  the  level  of  the  adjoining 
plain  ;  and  continuous  embankments,  called  levees,  have  been  made  at  great  expense  to 


prevent  the  river  from  overflowing  in  times  of  flood.  When  level  with  the  top  of  the 
levees,  the  water  is  as  high  as  the  second  floor  of  houses  on  the  plain.  Whenever  a  break 
in  the  levee  occurs  at  time  of  floods,  vast  tracts  of  l:ind  are  covered  with  water,  and  great 
loss  of  property— and  sometimes  of  life—results.  The  amount  of  .sediment  carried  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  annually  by  the  Mississippi  River  would  cover  an  area  of  one  square 
mile  to  a  depth  of  27  feet. 

4.  The  barrenness  of  the  plateau  region  is  due  to  lack  of  rainfall  rather  than  because  the 
soil  is  infertile.  Where  irrigation  is  possible  much  of  this  country  will  probably  be 
rendered  productive  in  the  future. 

*  Scandinavian:  pertaining  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  whose  people  are  called  Scandinavians. 
amtiguous:  touching.  afex:  the  tip,  or  point.  genial:  agreeable,  pleasant. 


PHYSICAL    UNITED    STATES. 


51 


.2  a 

as*" 

U   J3     ° 
■T3     tl     « 


a   „ 
en  -^ 

a  w 
•"    a 

•Si  s 

a  ^  tn 
42  -G  ■« 

<l  p-  .t: 

,11  Q 

^  5  ^ 

^  V;  -3 
aj    o  -^ 

"^   a  -> 

S    'Tl    ^ 
t    "t^    2 

•d  ^ 

a  0) 

rt    - 


•a  ^-1   a 

^  -c  ^ 
Sou 

S5 


N  .2 

a  .a 


a 

■B  a 

4)  J3 

en  >j 


O    u 


o  ^ 

2  0 


.2  "" 


Q  a 


•r:   "s   ^ 

■5  ^ 


Si  *"  -S 
5  5  5 

M   O.   c^ 

5   o<  o 


CO    » 

^1 
■^   73 

a  ^ 

"»  s; 

u  '55 
^  2 
to    ui 

u    a 

o<  a 

+-* 

.  ^ 

S   w 


o  ii 

«•  to 

a     r^ 

<n  .-a 
>>  c 


tn  o 


ti   «   Si   « 

^  ^^  -a  T3 

(It  -  »r  ^ 


"  9 

CD    'Jj 


.a  "o 

^      «.a 

cij    a    a;  j3 

«  ^  -2  'S 

^  .a  ^ 
•2  1?  S 

S    'U        .a 

3     <^-.    (/3 

OH 
•        a   u 
=n        a  ^ 

3    Wo    b 

a  a  S  o 

u      3      ^ 

a  P<  a  a 

'3  ii   =«  '« 
a   n   M   a 

3     tJ   ^     3 

o   2   rt   o 
So  as 


o 


a  oj  s 

^1.  o 

+j  +j  a 

CD  U 

O  Si 


-9  2  a 


rj      4*  « 

^  -S  to 

"  2  b 

«  -a  f 

o  a 

•^   Ji  '3 

rt  5  " 

g  a 

O  O 

en    en  a 

•n  5i 


rt   a 


a   tj 

en 

5  « 
1-t  .2 

rn   a 
3 

o6 


f  3  a 
a  o  o 
■«  •"  5? 

§5  i 

O         o 

a  a  en 

-S.2  a 

9  ^  -^ 

aJ   a   y 

.9     K    J^ 

3  ^  " 

3  *J  rt 
O     b/J   4>    - 

V  a  M 
.2  «    .  • 

tt     —     en 
^    CU  rt  , 
2    a    u 

CO  a  rt 


<u  a  •^ 


a  ,--  a 

^  t3  .S 

•^  S  <" 

a;     rt  4) 

J3  2  bo 

e*-  .a^  rt 

o  M  V 
■"a 

en    u  .a 

oi  <1  g 

2   <"  fe 

rt      rt  1> 

u  ti  o 

bo    S  e° 

a  ii  ^ 


P4     OJ 

3 


^    a 


1 

■4-» 

a 

o 

a 

"a 

cfl 

1 

•-H 

J4 

S 

en 

en 

o 

1 

a 
o 

hJ 

5 

u 

a 

o 

to 

*J 

O 

3 

O    o.- 

Sen 


'iH     el> 

is  -^ 


iS    bo 
ni   a 


U      CO 

;    H  '^ 

+J    rt  +J  [>i 

.  Ph  rt  "-' 

"-    il>  -3  "O 

mS  ^  B 

3    rt  "S 

°    ^  ^-  5 

.2  b  S  a 

.,    rt  O  53 

rT    3  o  O 

ej  -H  r> 

a>  w  M 

j3    "  rt  J5 

."  lU  '^  a 

J3    3  D  3 

,-_    u  S  o 


m    rt  3 

•C   ^  ° 

a  !^ 

"    en  u 

9^5 

•35    rt  M 

^tO  u 

boii  u. 

rt   *^ 


2  2 


a    it 


a>    o 

■0    ^ 


a  a 

■rt  P 

rt  ■'^ 

a; 


a;  *^ 

0) 


•g^^l 


*^     O  3 
^3^ 

ca    o  -4J 

^  ji  s 

1  *"  p 

'.  a 
S  «i 

<-rt 

«  i  I, 

a    a;  rt 

_g    u  - 

'3  "  rt 

Q    *.  >- 

'"  a 

o  .S 


a  V 


■a 
a>    3 

3  3 


t4^    ,3 

O 


j:  o  .■" 


3 

a 


VT-?      rt 

S    bo^ 


o     O 


en     S 
tH      O 

n-     O 


rt 


o 


3  a 

O    -rt 

a^l 

5i   f^-E 
J3    O    M 

:;« w 

!3    "    " 

■*   "43   ea 


j:   a  rt 


ja   a  rt 
^  ^  ^ 


J3    ev 


U     4> 

'rt.    *j 


'^  2 

^3 


i  p- 


a; 

J3 

3 

•>-' 

t/i 

u 

^ 

>i 

:3 

^ 

c 

^ 

^  a  9 
°  o  a 
to  a  a 

•s  -  5 

a.  a 
o  -a 


rt    4J 
(L,     O. 

..    °    a 


O.  rt 


O    _ 

5  <;  u 


vff 


to 


Lonjritude 


7%    \ 


kJ^.  7'^^\  r''^-^2  ^r  m¥^4,"7^ 


^sourt      IBj 


<^S/a, 


J'^OU 


S  Bismarck 
K^     O 


T 


*P4, 


■*^aG 


'  ■^ofliotA'I' 


Cv, 


C_>      JO  W~«akV  ^1  rU— »h  VII  \ 


W 


'^1 


^^ 


->,*»-* 


hBiUJi, 


U.  .V- 


»«i»^    \L^P^     ^*'*»>  "^ 


'  \ 


cr--. 


JitSa^Fr, 


7<:hcJ 


^a*      i    K 


"^L./^  ^' 


X  jK  c  o 


|/„  -  I  LLfeNO 

iiSocorro 


estacIado 


LoDjcitude 


77 


Z'-J^ 


-sJ 


nerd 


Arthur  1">J-,.„        <         V— ^     X 


i 


'^4/ 


■f 


V 

y^^' 

&**^ 


r^,.  *»«»■»» 


.61W 


'^'^0 


lO 


•o^. 


%, 


W«»»jj 


V 


STlPMJU 


LA 


'rW  J^ — \    \    ■'^Vl  /colli"'"     coto.ro,--^  KjLy  J         ^   .,|  \£VijJv-ia? 


t'-' 


1_8I01^  CITY 
I 


Jaaw 

1^!  oueuQUE>r-^^' 


I'         DE8  MOINES  ^^  P    V/  ,,-i*Ml0CK         P]. 


-g^t-^^EBlt 


PCotiBeU3lDft> 


-QiJ 


Be»trlee' 


>^     Vrr8-.fo» 


.   „a>        *    J^      /**  *iBO~ 

■°./"°    vt^  U>,^»     to/   "*     *• 


^^.v 

'<-.. 


JtON 


"■H 


KichV        .    )    ■* 


Pilot" 
(/  Knob 


•'i^^ThvN 


X.iS^ 


,  w<- 


.HA 


fe. 


ItootM^' 


1 3v*T^^-  4^-"  "n  ^'.^f"7^!:^fc^^^^^^^5Z$^;"* "''w^^^ 


^ 


t1^ 


^.r^-> 


TM-sy 


^„E».«^._(^«^— ,, 


PinilB  li//  ^ 


o 

\tocheB 

»*^ 

Llexandrja^ 

H 


TomMiCoJJ 


^ 


'"c.f'"! 


^  ATLANTA 


ffARLtS- 


TO" 


/^    C 


^ 


•^£u/0| 


<:*  /"C 


TJIVITED  STATES 


ail* 


Ije  MILES  TO  ONE  INCH. 
SCALE  OF  MILES 

' '  jw  aw 


aflo 


JJ 


7*TaUulu3 

,0 


*«■•>"• 


Capita]«, 


EXPLANATION-; 


'■'^of"' 


L^N9 


^V(»aii!r<^ 


Capitals  &  Iju-^st  Citius,- 
Ijargvat  Cities, _-. 


-« 


a,  -s? 


A»^ 


I 


r«ii»p*^ 


«-8iy 


Bay 


M      -eX    X      I 


c 


Q 


0 


O 


V 


Towns  with  over  25,000  pop., OAKLAND  • 

Towns  "between  lO.OW  A  25,000  pop.,  — —  8ui  I>I«b«  O 

fc  -  C^apaveta^      Towns 'between  6,000  &  10,000  pop., Santa  Crux  n. 

Towns  under  6,000  pop., Eureka  • 

B       A       H        . 


BBiiT^i 


C.Rbi 


^,o;,o^»*^;- 


"wSbo* 


'fj^» 


5^. 


:  LJ 


2L  D.  S«TuN,  £oc^^.  X. 


54 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PRECEDING  MAP. 

Location  of  States. — Beginning  at  the  north,  name  the  States  having  an 
Atlantic  sea-coast.  Which  States  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?  Which 
have  a  Pacific  sea-coast?  Name  the  States  crossed  by  the  .\ppalachian 
Highland.  The  States  of  the  Great  Central  Plain.  The  Rock)'  Mountain 
States.  The  States  of  the  Great  Basin.  Name  the  States  that  have  the 
Mississippi  River  for  an  eastern  boundary.  For  a  vpestem  boundary.  Name 
the  States  bordering  the  Great  Lakes.  Which  State  has  lake,  river,  and 
ocean  boundaries? 

Map-Reading. — What  mark  on  this  map  indicates  towns  of  less  than  5,000 
inhabitants?  Towns  between  5,000  and  10,000  inhabitants?  Towns  between 
10,000  and  25,000?  Capitals?  Largest  towns?  Capitals  and  largest  towns? 
Make  the  sign  of  each.  How,  on  this  map,  can  you  tell  the  population 
class  to  which  a  capital  belongs?  The  largest  city?  To  what  population 
class  does  the  capital  of  Ohio  belong?  The  capital  of  Illinois?  The 
capital  of  Missouri?  The  capital  of  North  Dakota?  What  is  the  scale 
of  this  map? 


Cities.— Which  half  of  the  United  States  contains  the  greater  number  of 
cities  of  more  than  25,000  inhabitants,  the  eastern  or  western?  On  which 
sea-coast  are  the  larger  number  of  cities?  Name  the  cities  with  a  population 
of  over  25,000  that  you  find  on  the  banks  of  each  of  the  following  rivers, 
going  from  their  source  toward  their  mouth:  The  Mississippi;  Ohio;  Mis- 
souri; Colorado;  Columbia.  The  cities  with  a  population  between  10,000 
and  25,000.  Name  the  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  having  a  population  of 
over  25,000.  Between  10,000  and  25,000.  What  large  cities  in  about  the- 
same  latitude  as  San  Francisco?  Are  most  of  the  great  cities  of  the  United 
States  north  or  south  of  this  latitude? 

Directions  and  Distances.— In  what  direction  and  how  far  from  San 
Francisco  is  New  York?  New  Orleans?  Washington?  Chicago?  St.  Paul? 
Duluth?  Boston?  St.  Louis?  In  what  direction  and  how  far  from  New 
York  is  Boston?  Buffalo?  Chicago?  New  Orleans?  In  what  direction  and 
how  far  from  Chicago  is  Cincinnati?  Philadelphia?  New  York?  New 
Orleans?  (Ascertain  distances  by  using  the  scale. )  How  do  the  States  east 
of  the  Mississippi  compare  in  size  with  those  west?  Which  half,  east  or 
west,  has  nearly  all  the  navigable  rivers? 


POLITICAL  UNITED   STATES. 


DESCRIPTION. 

322.  Development.— The  physical  features  and  climate  of  the 
country,  together  with  the  character  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  have  resulted  in  the  most  unparalleled  development  of  a 
nation  within  a  brief  period  that  the  world  has  ever  known. 

323.  Settlement. — Permanent  settlement  by  the  whites  began 
early  in  the  seventeenth  centur>'  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  These 
early  colonists  were  principally  English,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Spanish,  who  settled  Florida,  and  the  French,  who  settled  Louisiana. 
Immigrants*  from  Europe^  rapidly  increased  the  number  of  inhab- 
itants, and  the  center  of  population^  which  was  at  first  confined  to 
the  Atlantic  Slope,  has  ever  since  been  extending  westward.* 

324.  Population,— The  first  census  of  the  United  States  was 
taken  in  1790,  showing  a  population  of  a  little  less  than  4,000,000. 
Every  ten  years  has  added  from  one  fifth  to  two  fifths  of  the 
population  often  years  before,  giving  a  population  in  1890  of  over 
60,000,000.  The  increase  between  1880  and  1890  was  about  one 
fifth,  or  20  per  cent. 

325.  Government. — In  govemmept,  the  United  States  is  a 
Federal  Republic,  composed  of  forty^wtr  StateSjiSffl^^erritories, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia.     Each  State  has  a  Constitution  of 

1.  The  greater  proportion  of  the  present  white  people  of  the  United  States  are  Anglo- 
American,  or  descendants  of  the  early  English  colonists.  Immigrants  come  from  almost 
every  part  of  the  world.  Of  late  years  Germany  has  given  one  third  of  the  whole  annual 
number;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  over  a  fifth;  Norway,  Sweden,  Italy,  and  Canada  sup- 
plj-ing  nearly  all  of  the  remainder. 

2.  It  U  Interesting  to  Bee  how  the  center  of  population  has  moved  westward  since  1790, 
when  the  first  census  was  taken.  At  that  time  it  was  about  25  miles  west  of  Baltimore  and 
I7ji  miles  north  of  the  39th  parallel. 

Ten  years  later  it  had  moved  41  miles  west  and  a  little  over  4  miles  south. 

In  1810  it  was  found  36  mileS^farther  west  and  5  miles  farther  south. 

In  1820  it  had  crept  westward  50  miles  more  and  worked  southward  a  little  over  one 
m.ile. 

In  1830  it  had  crossed  the  39th  parallel  and  rested  about  2}^  miles  south  of  it,  having  gone 
westward  49  miles. 

The  next  decade  saw  it  move  55  miles  westward  and  return  north  to  a  point  a  little 
more  than  2  miles  above  the  39th  parallel. 

Between  1840  and  1850  it  flowed  westward  another  55  miles,  and  swung  south  of  the 
parallel  again  a  little  over  a  mile. 

i860  saw  it  81  miles  nearer  the  setting  sun  and  4%  miles  north  of  the  parallel. 

Another  ten  years  had  carried  it  westward  42  miles  and  turned  it  north  954  miles. 

Fifty-eight  miles  westward,  from  1S70  to  iSSo,  returning  south  again  about  9  miles. 

In  1890  the  center  of  population  of  the  United  States  had  reached  a  point  505  miles 
west  of  that  which  marked  it  one  hundred  years  before,  and  about  3J4  miles  south  of  it. 
resting  about  30  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Indiana,  and  about  14  miles  north  of  the  39th 
parallel. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  utmost  variation  north  and  south  has  been  only  20  miles,  and  that 
in  1S90  the  center  of  population  was  within  3J4  miles  of  the  line  on  which  it  started  west- 
ward 100  years  before,  although  it  had  traveled  more  than  500  miles. 

3.  There  are  three  branchee  of  the  government:  the  Legislative  Department,  or  Congress, 


its  own,  a  Governor,  a  Legislature  consisting  of  two  houses,  and  j 
State  Supreme  Court.     The  powers  of  the  National  Government* 
are  derived  from  the  Constitution  adopted  in  1788,  and  from  vari-   '  ^ 
ous  amendments  since  that  time.  ^  i 

326.  The  District  of  Columbia  is  a  tract  of  land  nearly 
square,  and  containing  about  70  square  miles  on  the  eastern,  or 
left,  bank  of  the  Potomac  River.  It  is  set  aside  by  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  for  the  use  of  the  Government.  It  is  under 
the  direct  charge  of  a  local  government,  which  is  subject  to  the 
will  of  Congress.  The  people  of  the  District  have  no  representa- 
tive in  Congress  and  do  not  vote  on  any  question. 

327.  Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  is  situated 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  Potomac  River.' 

328.  Territories. — The  Territories  of  the  United  States  are 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  ^teh,  Alaska,  Indian  Territory,  and  Okla- 
homa. Each  Territory  is  allowed  one  delegate  to  the  House  of 
Representatives.  He  may  speak  on  any  question,  but  has  no 
vote. 

329.  Industries. — The  leading  industries  of  the  tlnited  States 
are  agriculture,  mining,*  manufacturing,  stock-raising,  and  lum- 
bering. 

which  makes  the  laws;  the  Judicial  Department,  which  Interprets  the  laws;  and  the  Exec- 
utive Department,  which  enforces  the  laws. 

Congress,  which  meets  everj-  December  at  Washington,  is  composed  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate  consists  of  two  members  from  each  State,  chosen 
by  the  State  Legislature  for  a  terra  of  six  years.  The  House  of  Representatives  is  com- 
posed of  members  elected  directly  by  the  BCo^lS'^'"4^  term  of  two  years.  Each  State  is 
entitled  to  one  representative  for  everyfjSLSrinhamtauts. 

The  President,  who  is  the  chief  executive  officer,  is  elected  every  four  years  by  electors 
chosen  only  for  that  purpose  by  the  people. 

The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate  Justices,  whp  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  approved  by  the  Senate. 

4.  The  Influence  of  mines  in  building  up  cities  and  in  adding  to  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  countries  is  thus  referred  to  by  a  writer  in  Goldthwaite's  Geographical  Magazine: 

"  Many  of  the  more  important  towns  of  this  continent  have  had  their  origin  in  what 
seemed  at  the  time  to  be  a  slight  matter.  Some  prospector  picked  up  a  chip  of  stone  with 
a  few  bright  particles  in  it,  and  in  consequence  of  this  a  city  covers  the  neighborhood 
where  the  stone  was  found,  with  schools,  churches,  theaters,  factories,  newspapers,  and  all 
the  other  essentials  and  accompaniments  of  civilized  life.  Gold  has  civilized  Australia; 
the  same  metal  has  worked  an  entire  change  in  California;  diamonds  have  caused  the 
peopling  of  a  part  of  South  Africa  and  Brazil;  the  control  of  the  mines  and  deposits  of 
precious  stones  in  India.  Burmah,  and  other  parts  of  the  east  by  the  British  has  led  to  the 
introduction  of  modern  ideas  and  modern  methods  in  those  countries;  Hungary  owes  much 
to  her  opals,  and  Poland  to  her  salt;  coal  and  iron  have  been  the  making  of  Pennsylvania; 
lime-stone,  granite,  and  brown-stone  are  important  sources  of  wealth  in  New  England;  the 
copper  mines  of  Lake  Superior  supply  half  the  world  with  red  metal,  and  from  the  upland 
plains  of  Peru  come  the  nitrates  that  are  hardly  less  profitable  than  gold,  though  used  only 
in  agriculture  and  the  manufacture  of  chemicals." 

•  immigrants:  persons  coming  into  a  country  to  live;  the  opposite  of  emigrants. 
textiles:  woven  goods. 


POLITICAL    UNITED    STATES. 


55 


VJAR 
D^.-'/IRTMFNT 


330.  The  Chief  Manufactures  of  the  United  States  consist  of  flour  and  other 
grist-mill  products,  iron  and  steel,  clothing,  machinery,  leather,   boots  and   shoes,  -,, 
woolen  goods,  and  agricultural  implements.     In  the  manufacture  of  steel  the  United  ^.,, 
S|  States  is  now  the  leading  nation  in  the  world. 

331.  The  Chief  Exports,  named  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are  cotton,  breadstuffs, 
provisions,  precious  metals,  petroleum,  and  tobacco. 

332.  The  Leading  Imports  are  sugar,  textiles,  coffee,  tea,  silk  manufactures, "hides,  Unen  manufactures,  tin, 
iron,  and  India-rubber. 

333.  The  Inland,  or  Domestic,  Commerce  of  the  United  States  is  carried  on  by  means  of  natural  waterways,   ^ 
canals,  and  railroads,  the  latter  comprising  two  fifths  of  the  railroads  of  the  entire  world. 

334.  Foreign  Commerce.  —  The  United  States  stands  fourth  among  nations  in  the  value  of  its  foreign  commerce. 
Great  Britain  being  first,  Germany  second,  and  France  third.  The  chief  centers  of  foreign  commerce  are  New  York,  Boston, 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  New  Orleans  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  San  Francisco  on  the  Pacific.  Two  thirds  of  all  the 
imports  and  one  half  of  the  exports  pass  through  New  York  City. 

335.  Education  is  carried  on  at  public  expense,  but  is  not  under  the  direction  of  the  National  Government. 
Each  State  regulates  its  own  system  of  public  schools.     In  addition  to  the  common  schools,  provision  is 
^made  in  most  States  for  the  higher  education  of  both  sexes. 

336.  Religion. — As  perfect  religious  freedom  is  secured  by  the  Constitution,  the  United  States  has  no 
established  church.     The  Christian  religion  prevails. 

337.  Divisions  of  the  United  States.— For  convenience  of  study  the  United  States  is  usually  divided 
into  groups.     In  this  book  the  States  are  described  in  six  groups.     The  manufacturing 
and  commercial  States  are  described  in  one  g^oup,  entitled  The  Northeastern  States.    The 
agricultural  States  are  described  in  three  groups,  corresponding  to  differences  in  produc- 
tions:   (i)  The  North  Central  States,  (2)  The  Middle  Belt  States,  (3)  The  Southern 
States.     The  mining  and  grazing  States  constitute  one  group,  called  The  Plateau  States; 
and  The  Pacific  Coast  States  constitute  the  remaining  grroup. 
i  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  sometimes  a  State  in  one  of  these 

gfroups  is  distinguished  also  by  the  characteristics  of  another  group. 

Thus,  a  State  like  Ohio,  of  great  fertility  and  natural  adaptation 

to  agriculture,  may  also  possess  large  facilities  for  manufactures  and 

commerce,  and  be  found  extensively  engaged  in  these  pursuits. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  has  caused  the  rapid  growth  of  the  United  States?    Who  were  the 

first  permanent  settlers?    In  what  part  of  the  country  did  they  settle?     What 

is  the  District  of  Columbia?    Where  is  it  located?     What  kind  of  government  has  the  United  States?     What  is  its  capital? 

Of  how  many  branches  does  the  government  consist?     What  does  each  do?     How  is  Congress  constituted?     Of  what  does  the 

Senate  consist  and  how  are  its  members  elected?    The  House  of  Representatives?    Name  the  Territories  of  the  United  States.     Write  in 

.  column  the  chief  manufactures  of  the  United  States,  and  opposite  those  produced  in  your  part  of  the  country  write  "Yes;"  opposite  the 

rest,  "No."     Make  a  list  of  exports.     Opposite  those  from  this  State  write  "Yes."     Make  a  list  of  imports.     Opposite  those  used  with  you 

write  "Yes."     What  proportion  of  railroads  of  the  world  are  in  the  United  States?    How  many  important  commercial  centers  on  the  Atlantic 

side?    The  Pacific  side?    Tell  how  education  is  supported  and  carried  on. 

Original  Studies. — Why  do  you  think  the  eastern  side  of  the  United  States  was  settled  before  the  western?  Learn  how  often  the  census  is  taken. 
How  is  commerce  carried  on  where  you  live?  Is  it  foreign  or  domestic  commerce?  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  greater  number  of  commercial 
centers  on  the  Atlantic  than  on  the  Pacific  sea-board?    In  what  large  city  of  the  United  States  have  the  people  no  vote? 


!"*-t* 


I-onsritude 


/  \\        So 


INDIAN  LANDS 


^■Jjij}^^n 


m 


■^*^*\       *«ai(| 


l^br.l"'") 


Bair^^  ■ 


M 


"■a;;5^ 


Laet 


'  ^  N  D      (7  ^Mf  II  -fitfntwr* 

^    ^  K     ,APOSTLB 


^     ir    P    £  -X 


'Jyieiceenavs  J 


,.»>• 


stP 


"■J_PARK 


\    \J^"''"<'«<'»'i^g        • 


SI 


r  "» 


1" 


v^ 


«sjM 


bllUw^frA  + 


»>5y 


k. 


^    Ishpemlng 

7^ 


\ 


Owatfi 


>»/.. 


FtJIuward/,^      /         . 

Green  Ba\i      "*> 


.et^^ 


Alb(.«r       A s  I  X  ,rj£^''<'okl      Karltoiiiol,^  £• 

<^--i"^&\L.  V^-^ JsUACROSSE        \  tP*      „     T/„      ..i 

I      ,    -1       ^-"""nJlcirX        S    I    \  ^  •       ,.      I  J  '^    Beater  DanV  g  \! 


-V^-vj 


y\»> 


\ 

^s 


S<!>. 


»•»' 


^h 


I  Cloud    -^^      B,..-ij.is  ~^'iJ_  VTYrir — r- 


'lattiuille  Nj^  •■WhifcwatVr       tt) 


« 


ILWAUKEE  Brimt 

Platt^ille        '     "'^-dK  •■WhifcwatV-        tt)  HAva 

. — ^_&Zs;y _J«njs_/.a4j           k^  ■" 

..§77-  niA/nuk^flan 


-1  ^        ^^  Otiuiuwl!  _ 

i '-entreiTJieX  N'i"'iiiStonn 


ROCK  ISLAND      "%  *|4.>'1„£S» 

Brindu/ood^    ^v 


'.mmond    "^fr" 
+ 


'a" 


_^<»tl 


Red  Cloud     ~^<^S_^  B„irtJ,U   r-'-v^^ ir /  /  MWTnT'^^T- ■*!— l~V2i.'^''»0'i    X5   *«»™»"t»      i?EOm., 

ii_CT_  *.    .1      r     1-ix/    ^  I      w*        ^    leolukf^**  C      y    *-^^     QBI««D.lnglon 


,k»> 


■<&*   f^^ 


Hiawatha 


o 


IC 


BodgeWW 


(^^■^,/^p. 


Klrksvm 


*' — jjiil  B-  "^^a//na « 


Beards 
xjm  f       town 

^       J\  )  Sprlnjnflll  ^j( 

Salt  &^-\,        [S 


)ec«liir|<,- ^  Paris 


^'•uiiia      1  Ta  Do" 


jSSw 


TERRE  ai 

*.HAUTE  ^jy 


^ria 


'ii^isajip/fjy    ^''Xtwndencei    *+ 


LX^i 


i*i<Si6j 


O'AOEB 


JIvilevllle 


"-i#5r^'^^^ 


«N0  I  1-     I     (       I  't'^*\      <^ 


Washington 


6S 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PRECEDING  MAP. 

[These  questions  to  l)e  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

NORTHEASTERN  STATES. 

Position  and  Extent. — Beginning  at  the  north,  name  in  order  the  North- 
eastern States  bordering  the  ocean.  Name  those  bordering  the  Great  Lakes. 
Which  ones  touch  Canada?  Which  one  has  no  sea-coast?  Botmd  each  of 
the  Slates,  beginning  with  Maine.  Which  of  these  States  is  largest?  Which 
smallest?    Which  has  most  sea-coast? 

Mountains. — What  moimtain-system  crosses  the  Northeastern  States?  By 
what  name  are  these  mountains  known  in  western  Vermont?  In  north- 
eastern New  York?  In  southeastern  New  York?  In  western  Massachusetts? 
W'here  is  Mount  Washington?  Mount  Marcy?  How  high  are  the  highest 
portions  of  land  in  these  States?     (See  Physical  Map  of  United  States.) 

Rivers. — Find  the  two  largest  rivers  of  Maine.  What  river  between  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont?  Across  what  States  does  this  river  flow?  Into 
what  does  it  empty?  Describe  the  Hudson  River.  The  Mohawk.  The 
Genesee.  What  river  between  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey?  In  what 
direction  do  most  of  the  large  rivers  of  this  division  of  States  flow?  What 
two  rivers  unite  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania?  What  large  river  do 
they  form?     What  river  separates  Maryland  from  Virginia? 

Cities  and  Towns. — Name  the  capital  of  each  State  of  this  group  and  give 
its  location  and  population  class.  Name  the  largest  city  in  each  State  and 
give  its  location.  Which  State  contains  most  cities  of  over  25,000  inhab- 
itants? In  which  part  of  the  State  are  most  of  these  large  cities?  What 
cities  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers?  What  city 
in  New  York  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie? 

Give  direction  and  distance  from  New  York  of:  Portland;  Boston;  Provi- 
dence; Philadelphia;  Baltimore;  Pittsburg;  Bufialo. 

Give  the  location  of:  Nashua;  Portsmouth;  Cambridge;  Lowell;  Lawrence; 
Fall  River;  Worcester;  Lynn;  Springfield;  New  Bedford;  Rochester;  Oswego; 
Syracuse;  Poughkeepsie  tpo  kip'si);  Ithaca;  Allegheny  City;  Scranton; 
Pottsville;  Wilkesbarre;  Oil  City;  Patterson. 

Map  of  New  York  and  Vicinity. — On  which  side  of  New  York  is  Jersey 
City?  On  which  side  is  Brookl}Ti?  On  what  bay  are  these  cities?  By  iising 
the  scale  of  miles  find  the  greatest  length  of  New  York  City.  What  large 
island  south  of  Jersey  City?     On  what  island  is  Brooklj-n? 

NORTH  CENTRAL,  STATES. 

Position  jmd  Extent. — Name  the  North  Central  States.  Beginning  with 
Ohio,  name  those  bordering  the  Great  Lakes.  Which  State  has  most  lake- 
shore?  Which  are  bordered  by  the  Mississippi  River?  Which  by  the  Mis- 
souri? Which  are  crossed  by  the  Missouri?  Which  are  bordered  by  the 
Ohio  River?     Bound  each  State  of  this  group,  beginning  with  West  Virginia. 

Mountains. — What  mountains  or  hills  in  this  division  of  States?  How 
high  are  they?  (See  Physical  Map  of  United  States.)  What  is  the  altitude 
of  the  greater  portion  of  land  in  these  States?    Where.is  the  lowest  land? 


Rivers. — How  do  the  rivers  of  this  group  compare  in  size  with  those  of  the 
Northeastern  States?  In  this  group  which  is  the  longest  branch  of  the  Ohio? 
Describe  it.  Which  is  the  longest  branch  of  the  Mississippi  in  Illinois?  In 
Wisconsin?  In  Minnesota?  In  Iowa?  What  branch  of  the  Missouri  River 
crosses  Nebraska?    Kansas?    What  branch  of  the  Mississippi  crosses  Kansas? 

Cities  and  Towns. — Beginning  with  West  Virginia,  name  the  capital  of 
each  State  of  this  group,  give  its  location,  and  state  to  what  population  class 
it  belongs.  Name  and  give  location  of  the  largest  city  of  each  State.  Give 
cities  of  this  group  containing  more  than  25,000  inhabitants,  as  follows: 
Beginning  with  Duluth,  give  all  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Model:  Duluth,  situated  in  the  northeastern  part  ef  Minnesota,  on  the 
•western  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  contains  more  than  2^,000  inhabitants. 

Beginning  with  Wheeling,  give  all  on  the  Ohio  River.  Beginning  with 
Minneapolis,  give  all  on  the  Mississippi.  Give  all  on  the  Missouri.  All 
interior  towns.  Do  you  find  more  on  the  lakes  and  large  rivers  or  in  the 
interior?  Which  State  of  this  group  has  the  largest  number  of  inland  towns 
containing  more  than  25,000  inhabitants? 

Give  the  direction  and  distance  from  Chicago  of  the  following  cities: 
Detroit;  Toledo;  Cleveland;  Cincinnati;  Evansville;  Quincy;  Davenport; 
Omaha;  Minneapolis;  St.  Paul;  Duluth;  Milwaukee. 

Give  location  of  the  following  towns:  Charleston;  Grand  Rapids;  Racine. 

MIDDLE  BELT  STATES. 

Position  and  Extent. — Name  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  Middle  Belt 
division,  beginning  with  the  most  easterly.  Which  State  extends  farthest 
north?  Which  State  or  Territory  farthest  south?  Which  one  has  a  sea- 
coast?  Which  ones  are  partly  or  wholly  in  the  Mississippi  Valley?  Which 
are  partly  bounded  by  important  rivers?  By  what. rivers?  Bound  each 
State  of  the  group,  beginning  with  Virginia. 

Mountains. — What  important  range  of  mountains  crosses  Virginia?  What 
range  along  the  boundary  between  Virginia  and  Kentucky?  What  mount- 
ains in  southwestern  Missouri?     Where,  is  Pilot  Knob? 

Rivers. — Describe  the  following  rivers:  Potomac;  Rappahannock;  James; 
Tennessee;  Cumberland;  Kentucky. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Beginning  with  Virginia,  name  the  capital  of  each 
State  of  this  group  and  give  its  location  and  population  class.  Name  and 
give  location  of  the  largest  city  in  each  State.  Name  all  the  cities  of  more 
than  25,000  inhabitants  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ohio  and  the  east  bank  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  give  their  location."  Name  and  give  the  location  of  all 
the  cities  of  more  than  25,000  inhabitants  on  the  Missouri  and  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi.  Name,  in  each  State,  the  cities  with  more  than 
25,000  inhabitants  and  give  their  location. 

Give  the  direction  and  distance  from  Chicago  of  the  following  cities: 
Co\-ington;  Louisville;  Memphis;  St.  Louis;  Kansas  City;  St.  Joseph. 

Give  the  location  of  the  following  towns:  Portsmouth;  Fredericksburg; 
Lynchburg;  Knoxville;  Paducah;  Bowling  Green;  Springfield;  Hannibal; 
Sedalia;  and  give  the  population  class  of  each. 


NORTHEASTERN   STATES. 


(Manufacturing  and  Commercial.) 

CA-LIF-ORNIA.— Sq.    Mi.,    168,360;    Pop.,    1,208,130;    F"op.    Sq.    Ml., 


•.e. 


States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
1890. 

s^°&i.                -«^*"«- 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population,       Pop. 
1890.            Sq.  Mi. 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Connecticut 

Rhode  Island 

33.040 
9,305 
9.565 
8,315 
4,990 
1,250 

661,086 
376,530 
332,422 
2.238,943 
746,258 
345.506 

20.0 

40.4 

34-7 
269.2 

1495 
276.4 

49,170       1.007.8?  w 

124.0 

116.2 

184.8 

82.1 

83-3 

Pennsylvania 

New  Jersey 

Delaware 

Maryland    

45,215 
7,8iS 
2,050 

12,210 

5,258,014 

1,444.933 

168,493 

1,042,390 

DESCRIPTION. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

338.  States  Constituting  the  Group. — Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland  form 
the   most   important  manufacturing   and  commercial   region  of 


the  United  States.     The  first  six  are   called  the  New   England 
States. 

339.  Surface  and  Soil.  —  The  surface  is  broken  by  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  which  traverse  this  section  from  north- 
east to  southwest.  The  soil  is  not  highly  fertile,  except  in  the 
river   valleys,    which    are   short    and    warm.      Hay,    oats,    rye, 


NORTHEASTERN    STATES. 


59 


"^Qai  MINlKG 


potatoes,  orchard  fruits,  and  berries   are   the   chief  agricultural 
products. 

340.  Climate. — North  of  Maryland  and  Delaware  the  winters 
are  severe.  In  most  of  the  States  snow  lies  on  the  ground  con- 
tinuously for  many  months  of  the  year.  The  summers  are  short 
and  hot. 

341.  Adaptation  to  Manufactures. — The  inexhaustible  stores 
of  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  natural-gas,  and  building-stone,  together 
with  the  water-power  furnished  by  the  numerous  short  and  rapid 
rivers,  render  manufacturing  the  leading  industry. 

Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island 
are  the  chief  manufacturing  States.     The  leading  manufactures 


344.  Education. — Education  has  always  received  special  atten- 
tion, and  many  of  the  best  institutions  of  learning  in  the  United 
States  have^beej^stablished  in  this  section^.  Harvard  Univergjl^Vj^i, 
at  Cambridge;  Yale  College,  at  New  Have^^^nell,  at  Ithaca^ 
Vassar  College  for  women,  at  Poughkeepsie;'the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  at  West  P^iutjNpw  York;  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy,  at  Annapolis^  Johns  Hopkins  University,  at 
Baltimore,  ire*"among  the  most  noted. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATES. 

345.  Maine,  the  largest  New  England  State,  is  situated  exactly 
midway  between  the  Equator  and  the  North  Pole.  The  surface  is 
rugged  and  mountainous.    Lakes  cover  one  tenth,  and  forests  three 


of  these  States  consist  ol  cotton,  woolen,  and  leather  goods,  fire- 
arms, cutlery,  jewelry,  tools,  machinery,  all  sorts  of  metal  and 
wooden  utensils,  and  such  articles  as  buttons,  pins,  needles,  etc. 

342.  Adaptation  to  Mining. — The  Appalachian  Highlands 
are  rich  in  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and  natural-gas.  Marble,  slate, 
and  building-stone  are  extensively  quarried. 

343.  Adaptation  to  Commerce.  —  The  coast-line  of  these 
States  contains  the  finest  harbors  of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
These  features,  together  with  the  location,  which  is  convenient  for 
both  domestic  and  foreign  commerce,  have  made  this  section  one 
of  the  great  commercial  centers  of  the  world. 


fourths  ol  its  area.     Along  the  coast  are  many  beautiful  islands, 
some  of  which  are  popular  summer  resorts. 

Manufacturing  is  the  leading  industry.  In  the  production  and 
manufacture  of  lumber,  and  in  the  building  of  wooden  ships,  Maine 
is  one  of  the  leading  States. 

346.  New  Hampshire,  the  land  of  hills  and  stones,  is  called  the 
''  Granite  State,"  from  its  abundant  granite  quarries.  The  White 
Mountains  of  this  State  are  the  highest  in  the  Northeastern  States, 
and  among  them  are  many  natural  curiosities  and  bits  of  beautiful 
scenery.  New  Hampshire  has  but  eighteen  miles  of  sea-coast  and 
but  one  good  harbor,  that  of  Portsmouth. 


60 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


347.  Vermont  takes  its  name  from  the  Green  Mountains  (verd, 
green;  mont,  mountain),  which  extend  through  it  from  north  to 
south.  These  mountains  are  perpetually  green  from  the  forests 
of  fir  and  pine  with  which  they  are  covered.  The  State  is  noted 
for  its  fine  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  for  its  quarries  of  slate, 
marble,  and  soap-stone.  The  butter  and  cheese  of  Vermont  are 
famous,  and  more  maple  sugar  is  produced  here  than  in  any  other 
State.  As  Vermont  has  no  sea-coast  it  has  no  foreign  commerce, 
except  that  carried  on  through  other  States.  Lake  Champlain 
gives  facilities  for  large  inland  commerce. 

348.  Massachusetts  is  mountainous  in  the  west  and  undulat- 
ing in  the  east.  It  is  in  direct  railroad  communication  with  the 
States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  has  a  long  sea-coast  and 
convenient  harbors.  A  tunnel  nearly  five  miles  in  length  has  been 
cut  through  the  Hoosac  Mountains  for  the  Boston  and  Troy  Rail- 
road. It  is  one  of  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  States  in  the 
Union,  and  is  second  only  to  New  York  in  manufactures  and  com- 
merce. In  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  leather  goods, 
and  in  its  fisheries,  it  ranks  first  in  the  Union.  More  than  one 
half  of  the  boots  and  shoes  used  in  this  country  are  made  in 
Massachusetts,  and  more  than  one 
half  of  the  fishing  vessels  in  the 
United  States  are  owned  here. 

349.  Connecticut  surpasses 
every  other  State  in  the  Union 
in  the  manufacture  of  firearms, 
sewing-machines,  hardware,  and 
cutlery.  Nearly  all  the  clocks 
used  in  the  United  States  are 
made  here. 

The  Connecticut  River  is  nav- 
igable as  far  as  Hartford  and 
there  are  many  ports  along  the 
sound,  giving  the  State  an  ex- 
tensive commerce. 

350.  Rhode  Island  is  the  most 
thickly  populated  State  in  the 
Union.  The  first  cotton-mill  in  the  United  States  was  built  in 
this  State,  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods  is 
now  its  most  important  industry. 

351.  New  York  exceeds  every  other  State  in  population,  wealth, 
manufactures,  and  commerce.  The  mountains  are  mostly  in  the 
eastern  part.  There  are  two  large  groups  of  lakes  in  the  State — 
one  in  the  northeast,  the  other  in  the  central  part.  The  valleys 
of  the  Hudson,  Mohawk,  and  Genesee  rivers  are  famed  for  their 
productiveness  and  beauty. 

About  one  third  of  the  dairy  products  and  one  fourth  of  the 
orchard  products  of  the  United  States  are  furnished  by  New  York. 
It  also  possesses  better  commercial  advantages  than  any  other 
State.  The  shortest  lines  of  transportation  between  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  sea  are  across  the  State  of  New  York  either  by 
railroad  or  canal  to  New  York  Bay. 

Wheat,  hay,  hops,  butter,  and  cheese  are  staple  agricultural 
products.  Nearly  all  of  the  broom-corn  used  in  the  United  States 
is  produced  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  The  Onondaga  Salt  Springs, 
near  the  center  of  the  State,  yield  vast  quantities  of  salt. 

The  Adirondack  Mountains  are  famed  for  their  beautiful 
scenery.  The  lakes  of  New  York  are  also  noted  for  their  beauty, 
and  many  of  them  are  popular  summer  resorts. 

On  the  western  side  of  New  York,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with 
Lake  Ontario,  is  the  Niagara  River,  which  leaps  over  a  precipice 
i6o  feet  high  and  forms  the  most  famous  cataract  in  the  world. 


A  BANK 
INTERIOR 


352.  Pennsylvania  is  mostly  mountainous,  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  here  attaining  their  greatest  width. 

The  State  ranks  first  in  the  production  of  useful  minerals.  About 
one  half  of  the  iron,  two  thirds  of  the  coal,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  the  mineral  oil,  or  petroleum,  produced  in  the  United  States  come 
from  this  State;  in  iron  manufactures  it  ranks  first.  Iron  and 
steel  vessels  are  manufactured  for  all  parts  of  the  Union. 

Most  of  the  oil  is  transported  to  the  sea-board  through  pipe- 
lines, which  extend  from  the  oil-fields  to  the  neighborhood  of 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  where  it  is  refined.  Natural-gas  is 
found  extensively  in  western  Pennsylvania,  and  is  used  for  fuel 
and  lighting.  It  cannot  be  profitably  transported  in  pipes  much 
farther  than  lOo  miles. 

353.  New  Jersey  is  mostly  adapted  to  agriculture.  The  central 
part  is  almost  entirely  devoted  to  market-gardening.  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  other  neighboring  cities  are  supplied  with  fruit 
and  vegetables  chiefly  from  these  gardens.  More  than  one  half 
of  the  cranberries  raised  in  the  United  States  are  grown  in  New 
Jersey,  and  during  the  huckleberry  season  immense  train  loads  of 
tVi''=  ♦'vi*^  "-e  carried  to  near  cities. 

The  zinc  mines  are  the  most 
valuable  in  North  America. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods 
and  fine  pottery  New  Jersey  excels 
every  other  State. 

354.  Delaware  is  famous  for 
its  fruit.  Its  peaches  are  especially 
fine.  The  manufactures  consist 
chiefly  of  iron  ships,  powder,  and 
railroad  cars  and  locomotives. 

355.  Maryland  partakes  of  the  characteristics 
■J^'  of  both  Northeastern  and  Middle  Belt  States.     It  is  the 
first  Atlantic  coast  State  south  of  Maine  to  raise  com  and 
tobacco  to  any  extent.    The  land  east  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  is   ■ 
the  peach-growing  district. 

The  fisheries  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  constitute  the  chief  wealth 
of  the  State.  The  oyster-beds  are  the  finest  and  most  productive 
in  the  world.     Shad,  herring,  and  terrapin  are  abundant. 

CHmF  CITIES. 

356.  New  York  City  is  the  great  commercial  center  of  the 
United  States,  and  ranks  among  the  leading  cities  of  the  world. 
In  commerce  it  is  surpassed  only  by  London  and  Liverpool.  New  • 
York  Bay,  on  which  it  is  located,  is  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in 
the  world.  More  than  one  half  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
country  passes  through  this  port.    As  a  money  market  New  York 

is  second  to  London  only. 

357.  Brooklyn,  the  fourth  city  in  size  in  the  Union,  is  com- 
mercially a  part  of  New  York.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  end  of 
Long  Island  and  is  connected  with  New  York  by  the  largest  sus- 
pension bridge  in  the  world.  Its  manufactures  are  extensive  and 
it  is  largely  a  city  of  homes  for  New  York  business  men. 

358.  Jersey  City  is  also  a  suburb  of  New  York,  and  is  the     |, 
terminus  of  many  railroads  and  steamship  lines.     It  manufactures    . 
more  lead-pencils  than  any  other  city  in  the  world. 

359.  Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  is  the  second  city  of 
the  western  continent  in  commercial  importance.  It  is  a  great 
financial  and  educational  center.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  boots,  shoes,  clothing,  iron  and  steel  goods.  Print- 
ing, book-binding,  and  sugar-refining  are  extensive.  It  is  the 
largest  leather  market  and  the  second  wool  market  in  the  United 
States. 


NORTHEASTERN    STATES. 


61 


360.  Philadelphia  ranks  fifth  among  the  sea-ports  of  the 
country  and  first  iu  manufactures.  It  is  located  loo  miles  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  Delaware  River,  which  is  deep  enough 
at  low  tide  to  admit  large  ocean  steamers.  The  industrial  impor- 
tance of  Philadelphia  is  largely  due  to  its  nearness  to  the  coal 
and  iron  region.  It  is  especially  noted  for  iron-  and  steel-working 
and  for  its  woolen  industries.  It  is  the  greatest  carpet-manu- 
facturing city  in  the  world.  In  making  fine  Brussels  and  velvet 
carpets  this  city  is  not  excelled.  Drugs  and  all  kinds  of  chemicals 
are  also  extensively  manufactured.  The  largest  ship-building 
yards  of  the  United  States  are  on  the  shores  of  the  Delaware  near 
Philadelphia.  Many  of  the  swift  ocean  steamers  and  new  naval 
vessels  of  the  United  States  are  constructed  here.  It  exports 
more  coal  than  any  other  city,  and  nearly  all  of  the  petroleum 
exported  from  the  United  States  is  from  Philadelphia  and  New 
York. 

361.  Baltimore,  Maryland,  has  a  commerce  somewhat  less  than 
that  of  Philadelphia.  Its  imports  are  comparatively  unimportant, 
but  in  exports  it  is  exceeded  by  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and 
Boston  only.  Baltimore  is  the  greatest  oyster  market  iu  the  world. 
Tobacco  is  also  an  important  export.  The  chief  industries  are 
gathering,  canning,  and  shipping  oysters,  iron-  and  steel-working, 
and  brick-making. 

362.  Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  is  one  of  the  important 
lake-ports,  and  is  also  an  extensive  railroad  center.  It  is  a  shipping 
port  for  the  West  and  Canada.  Quantities  of  grain,  live-stock, 
and  lumber  are  sent  through  the  lakes  and  reshipped  here  to  boats 
of  the  Erie  Canal  and  to  the  trunk  railway  lines.  Buffalo  is  noted 
for  metal-  and  wood-working  and  for  the  manufacture  of  glucose. 

MINOR  CITIES. 

363.  Maine. — Portland  is  the  railroad  center  of  the  State,  and 
the  chief  commercial  outlet.  During  the  winter  season  while  the 
St.  Lawrence  is  closed  by  ice,  steamers  bound  from  points  on  that 
river  for  Liverpool  and  Glasgow  start  from  Portland. 

Bangor  is  the  seat  of  the  lumber  trade.  Bath  and  Calais  are  the 
ship-building  centers. 

364.  New  Hampshire. — Manchester  and  Nashua  manufacture 
great  quantities  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

Portsmouth  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
United  States  navy-yards. 

365.  Vermont. — Burlington  is  the  metropolis  of  Vermont,  and  a 
leading  lumber  market. 

366.  Massachusetts. — Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Fall  River  are 
the  most  important  cities  of  Massachusetts  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

Worcester  is  an  extensive  railway  center,  and  is  noted  "for  the 
variety  of  its  manufactures. 

Lynn  is  the  leading  shoe-manufacturing  town  of  New  England. 
Springfield  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  arsenal.  New  Bedford 
is  the  greatest  whale-fishing  port  in  the  world. 

367.  Rhode  Island. —  Providence,  one  of  the  two  capitals  of 
Rhode  Island,  is  the  second  city  in  importance  in  New  England, 
and  is  a  great  manufacturing  center. 

Newport,  the  other  capital  of  Rhode  Island,  is  a  famous  summer 
resort. 

368.  Connecticut. — New  Haven  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College. 
Hartford   is   celebrated   for   the   manufacture   of  firearms   and 

machinery. 

Waterbury  contains  the  largest  brass  foundries  in  the  United 
States. 


369.  New  York. — Rochester  and  Oswego  are  extensive  flour- 
manufacturing  towns.  Oswego  carries  on  a  thriving  trade  with 
Canada.     Syracuse  is  noted  for  salt. 

370.  Pennsylvania. — Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  City  are  situated 
on  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers,  where  they  unite  to 
form  the  Ohio.  They  are  admirably  situated  for  river  traffic,  and 
are  in  the  heart  of  an  extensive  coal  and  iron  region.  Pittsburg  is 
the  second  iron-  and  steel-producing  city  of  the  United  States.  Coal 
is  towed  in  barges  to  the  various  ports  along  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi. Pittsburg  stands  first  in  the  country  in  glass-making. 
Natural-gas  has  almost  entirely  superseded  coal  as  fuel  in  this  city. 

Scranton,  Pottsville,  and  Wilkesbarre  are  noted  markets  for 
bituminous  coal  and  petroleum. 

Oil  City  is  the  center  of  the  Pennsylvania  petroleum  fields. 

371.  New  Jersey. — Trenton  excels  in  pottery  works.  Fine 
crockery  is  the  largest  export. 

Newark  is  an  extensive  manufacturing  city;  the  chief  articles 
are  rubber  goods,  jewelry,  and  clothing. 

Patterson  is  the  chief  silk,  and  cotton  and  linen  thread  man- 
ufactory in  the  country. 

372.  Delaware. — Wilmington  contains  celebrated  car-building 
works,  also  iron  steamship  yards  and  flouring-mills. 

373.  Maryland.— Annapolis  is  the  seat  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy. 

QUESTIONS. 

General  Characteristics. — Name  the  States  of  this  group.  Give  the  chief 
industrial  distinction  of  the  group. 

Describe  its  highland.     Soil.     Situation  of  best  soil.     Products  of  soil. 

Name  the  leading  industry.    Why?    Name  the  chief  manufacturing  States. 

Name  minerals  of  the  quarry.     Other  minerals,  and  their  locality. 

What  is  the  commercial  importance  of  this  section.     Why? 

Climate:  Winters;  summers;  snow. 

Colleges:  Name  and  give  location  of  one  in  Massachusetts;  one  in  Connec- 
ticut; three  in  New  York;  two  in  Maryland.  Which  one  is  for  women  only? 
Which  two  are  national  schools  and  supported  by  the  United  States? 

Characteristics  of  States.— Maine:  Relative  size;  latitude;  surface;  lakes; 
forests;  leading  industry;  kind  of  manufactures. 

New  Hampshire;  Mineral  resources;  mountains;  sea-coast;  harbor. 

Vermont:  Derivation  of  name;  live-stock;  minerals;  dairy  products;  rank 
in  maple  sugar;  sea-coast;  inland  commerce. 

Massachusetts:  Surface;  situation  for  commerce;  rank  in  manufactures;  in 
commerce;  in  fisheries.     In  what  does  it  rank  first  among  the  United  States? 

In  what  does  Connecticut  rank  first  in  the  United  States?  Commerce  of 
Connecticut? 

Rhode  Island:  Density  of  population;  most  important  industry. 

In  how  many  particulars  does  New  York  excel  every  other  State?  What 
are  they?  How  can  the  first  statement  about  Rhode  Island  and  the  first 
statement  about  New  York  both  be  true?  What  proportion  of  the  dairy  and 
orchard  products  of  the  United  States  is  furnished  by  New  York?  Name 
the  chief  farm  products.     What  of  broom-corn?     Of  salt? 

Pennsylvania:  Surface;  rank  in  minerals;  in  iron  manufactures.  Tell  the 
story  of  its  oil.     Of  its  natural-gas. 

New  Jersey:  Adaptation  to  agriculture;  kind  chiefly  prevailing;  where; 
its  fruit  markets;  leading  fruits.  In  what  minerals  and  in  what  manufact- 
ures does  it  rank  first? 

Delaware:  Fruit;  manufactures. 

Maryland:  Agricultural  products;  chief  wealth;  water  products.  Which 
of  the  water  products  are  fish? 

Chief  Cities. — In  this  group  of  States  are  cities  which  rank  first  in  the  world 
in  some  one  of  the  following  particulars — name  the  city  in  each  case:  In  the 
manufacture  of  lead-pencils;  of  carpets;  in  the  oyster  market;  whale-fishing. 

Some  of  the  cities  of  this  group  of  States  rank  first  in  the  United  States  in 
one  or  more  of  the  following  particulars — name  the  city  in  each  case:  In 
foreign  commerce;  as  a  money  market;  as  a  leather  market;  in  ship-build- 
ingi  coal  exports;  in  brass  foundries;  in  the  making  of  glass;  in  the  manu- 
fact\ire  of  thread. 

Name  all  the  cities  of  this  group  that  rank  second  in  the  United  States  in 
any  particular,  and  state  in  what  particular. 


62 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


GRAIN  ELEVATOR  IN  CHICAGO 


NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 

(Agricultural.) 

CALIF-ORNIA— Sq.   Ml.,    lS8,3eO;    Pop.,   1,208,130;    Pop.   Sq.   Nil.,   T.e. 


States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
1S90. 

Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 

States, 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
l8qo. 

Pop. 

Sq.  Mi. 

West  Virginia 

Ohio 

24,780 
41,060 
36,350 
56,650 
82,080 
56,025 

762,794 
3,672,316 
2, 192,404 
3,826,351 
1,427,096 
1,911,896 

30.7 
89.4 
60.3 

67-5 
17-3 
341 

Nebraska 

Michigan 

77,510 

58,915 
56,040 

83,365 
70,795 
77,650 

1,058,910 
2,093,889 

i,6S6,88o 

1,301,826 

182,719 

328,808 

13-6 
35-5 
30.1 
15-6 

2-5 

4.3 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Illinois 

Kansas 

Iowa 

DESCRIPTION.' 

GENBRAI,  CHARACTERISTICS. 

374.  The  Leading  Agricultural  Region  of  the  United 
States  comprises  the  States  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  aud  the 
Southern  States  of  the  Atlantic  Plain.  These  are  described  in 
three  groups:  The  North  Central  States,  the  Middle  Belt  States, 
and  the  Southern. States. 

375.  The  States  of  the  North  Central  Division  are  West 
Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota. 

376.  Surface  of  this  Group. — A  large  proportion  of  the  North 
Central  States  is  prairie,  some  parts  of  which  are  comparatively 
level,  and  other  parts  rolling  or  hilly. 

377.  Climate. — Except  along  the  southern  line  of  this  region 
the  winters  are  severe,  and  snow  lies  on  the  ground  during  most 
of  the  winter  months.  The  heat  of  summer  is  excessive,  modified, 
however,  by  the  Great  Lakes  in  the  locaUties  that  border  upon 
them.  The  States  of  this  division  west  of  the  Missouri  are  subject 
to  occasional  summer  drought.  Tornadoes  sometimes  occur  in  the 
prairie  region,  and  a  peculiar  driving  and  whirling  snow-storm, 
called  a  blizzard,  is  sometimes  encountered  ^  the  more  northerly 
prairies.  Frequent  summer  showers  clear  \j;he  air  and  lay  the 
dust. 

378.  Manufactures. — Notwithstanding  that  the  unbounded 
fertility  of  this  section  makes  agriculture  the  leading  industrj%  the 
cheap  fuel  from  its  coal-beds,  the  enormous  quantity  and  variety 
of  raw  material  produced,  together  with  its  shipping  facilities,  give 
rise  to  considerable  manufactures.  The  corn-fed  cattle  and  hogs 
are  converted  into  beef  and  pork;  hides  into  leather,  and  leather 
into  boots  and  shoes.  The  wool  produced  is  much  of  it  converted 
into  cloth,  and  the  cloth  into  clothing;  the  wood  is  made  into 
wagons,  furniture,  etc.,  and  the  wheat  into  flour. 


379.  Commerce.  —  The  vast  products  of  agriculture  in  this 
group  of  States,  and  the  products  of  its  factories,  mills,  and  packing- 
houses, combined  with  its  extraordinary  facilities  for  transporta- 
tion, give  to  it  great  commercial  as  well  as  agricultural  importance. 

380.  Shipping  Facilities.— Five  of  the  most  thickly  settled 
States  of  this  group  are  nearly  surrounded  by  the  navigable  waters 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Ohio,  and  the  Mississippi ,  giving  them  an 
outlet  to  the  Atlantic  both  by  the' St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi 
rivers;  aud  owing  to  the  general  level  surface  and  the  abundance 
of  coal,  no  other  equal  area  of  the  earth's  surface  possesses  so 
many  miles  of  railroad  as  the  States  of  this  group. 

381.  Education. — In  no  part  of  the  United  States  are  the  public 
schools  more  carefully  fostered,  and  nowhere  does  the  mass  of  the 
people  possess  a  higher  grade  of  intelligence.  The  normal  schools 
and  colleges  of  these  States  rank  with  the  best  in  the  country. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATES. 

382.  West  Virginia  is  the  most  mountainous  State  of  this 
group.  Grains  flourish  in  the  river  valleys,  live-stock  is  raised 
on  the  lower  mountain  slopes.  The  mountains,  though  not  much 
mined,  are  stored  with  coal.     Considerable  salt  is  produced. 

383.  States  with  Like  Characteristics. — Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  southern  Iowa  are  much  alike  in  surface,  climate, 
occupations,  and  products. 

384.  Ohio,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  the  most  productive  State 
in  the  Union,  and  though  ranking  among  the  richest  of  the  States 
in  agricultural  productions  it  is  the  first  State  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  in  manufactures,  and  fourth  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
the  first  State  in  the  Union  in  the  production  of  wool,  and  third 
in  the  production  of  steel  and  coal.  Dair>Mng  is  extensive.  The 
most  important  articTes^of  manufacture  are  agricultural  imple- 
ments, clothing,  furniture,  carriages  and  wagons,  leather,  boots 
and  shoes,  and  woolen  goods.' 


1.  Before  reading  this  description,  take  the  map  studies  on  North  Central  States,  p.  58. 

2.  The  great  Appalachian  coal-field  extends  over  the  eastern  portion  of  Ohio,  and  covers 


an  area  of  to.ooo  square  miles.    In  this  region  natural-gas  is  extensively  used  for  illumina- 
tion and  for  fuel. 


NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES. 


63 


385.  Indiana  is  a  grain-producing  and  stock-raising  State.  It 
has  no  great  commercial  city.    Farm  implements  are  manufactured. 

386.  Illinois  is  the  leading  agricultural  State  of  the  Union.  It 
is  the  second  State  in  the  production  of  com,  steel,  and  coal.  Coal- 
fields underlie  most  of  its  surface.  Important  lead  mines  are 
found  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State.  Aside  from  the 
products  mentioned,  this  State  yields  annually  vast  crops  of  wheat, 
oats,  flax,  and  rye,  Irish  potatoes,  hay,  and  all  kinds  of  garden 
vegetables.  Its  great  staple  is  Indian  com,  and  beef-  and  pork- 
packing  is  a  leading  industry.  Illinois  markets  immense  numbers 
of  hogs,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep.  Packed  pork  is  sent  from  here  to 
the  chief  commercial  points  of  the  world. 

387.  Michigan  forms  two  peninsulas,  known  as  Upper  Michi- 
gan and  Lower  Michigan.  Lower  Michigan  is  agricultural.  The 
western  portion  produces  large  quantities  of  fruit.  Michigan 
peaches  are  famous  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Upper  Michigan  is  wild,  rugged,  and  thinly  populated.  It  is 
one  of  the  richest  copper  regions  of  the  world,  and  is  also  rich  in 
iron  ore. 

Michigan  ranks  first  in  the  production  of  sawed  lumber  and  salt, 
and  in  the  wood-working  industries,  the  most  important  branch 
of  which  is  the  manufacture  of  household  furniture. 

388.  Wisconsin  is  a  wheat  and  lumber  State.  Dairy  farming 
is  a  leading  industry.  Iron  ore,  lead,  and  zinc  are  valuable  mineral 
products.  The  northern  part  contains  many  clear  and  beautiful 
lakes.  The  rivers  of  this  section  have  worn  deep  gorges,  through 
which  the  water  rushes  in  many  picturesque  cascades. 

389.  Minnesota  is  crossed  by  The  Height  of  Land.  Its  waters 
flow  northward  through  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  eastward 
through  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  southward 
through  the  Mississippi.  Its  surface  is  dotted  by  nearly  io,ooo 
lakes,  many  of  which  are  celebrated  as  summer  resorts.  Minne- 
sota is  the  first  wheat-  and  flour-producing  State.  One  third  of 
the  State  is  covered  with  white  pine  timber.  Lumbering  is  a 
leading  industry. 

390.  Iowa  is  more  exclusively  agricultural  than  the  States  east 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  ranks  first  in  the  United  States  in  the 
production  of  com  and  hogs.  It  is  also  an  extensive  butter-  and 
cheese-producing  State. 

391.  Kansas  and  Nebraska  occupy  a  portion  of  the  lower 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  are  adapted  to  agri- 
culture, but  the  soil  is  not  so  fertile  as  that  of  the  North  Central 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  climate  is  drier.  The 
chief  industries  are  agriculture  and  stock-raising. 

Kansas  is  the  geographical  center  of  the  United  States.  Rich 
mines  of  lead  are  found  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State. 

392.  North  Dakota  contains  the  largest  wheat  farms  in  the 
world.  A  greater  expanse  of  level  plain  is  found  here  than  in 
any  other  portion  of  the  United  States.  Stock-raising  is  extensive 
in  the  western  part.     The  climate  is  severe  in  winter. 

393.  South  Dakota  is  similar  to  North  Dakota  in  surface  and 
climate.  In  the  southwestern  part  are  the  Black  Hills,  which 
contain  valuable  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and  tin  ore.  Agriculture 
is  the  chief  industry. 

CHIEF  CITIES. 

394.  Chicago  is  the  second  city  in  population  on  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  and  the  great  commercial  and  financial  center  of  the 
interior  of  the  United  States.  It  possesses  open  water-ways 
through  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Erie  Canal  to  New  York;  through 


the  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  European  ports;  and 
through  canals  to  rivers  connecting  it  with  the  Mississippi.  More 
railroad  lines  center  here  than  in  any  other  city  in  the  world,  and  it 
is  the  largest  market  for  food  products.  The  North  Central  States 
ship  a  large  proportion  of  their  products  through  this  city.  Its 
meat-packing  establishments  are  more  extensive  than  those  of  any 
other  city.     The  manufactures  are  extensive  and  varied. 

395.  Cincinnati  and  Cleveland  rank  among  the  largest  ten 
cities  of  the  United  States.  Both  serve  as  gates  for  mighty 
streams  of  water  traflic.  Cleveland  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
cities  of  the  Union.  Cincinnati  is  the  literary  and  musical  center 
of  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

39G.  Detroit  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  lakes.  Its  trade  with 
Canada  is  extensive,  and  it  contains  many  copper-  and  iron-smelt- 
ing works. 

397.  Milwaukee  is  noted  for  its  iron  and  steel  works  and  for 
the  brewing  of  malt  liquors.  The  cream-colored  bricks  known  as 
"  Milwaukee  Brick,"  form  the  chief  article  of  export. 

398.  St.  Paul,  located  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  contains  numerous 
flouring-mills. 

399.  Minneapolis  is  located  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  near 
St.  Paul.  They  are  frequently  called  "  Twin  Cities."  Minneapolis 
is  the  leading  flour-producing  city  of  the  world.  Wood-working 
is  a  leading  industry  in  both  of  these  cities. 

400.  Omaha  is  an  important  railroad  center.  The  manufacture 
of  railway  supplies  is  the  leading  industry.  Its  silver-smelting 
works  are  the  largest  in  the  United  States.  It  is  the  third  pork- 
packing  city  in  the  Union. 

MINOR  CITIES. 

401.  West  Virginia.  —  Wheeling  is  an  iron-manufacturing 
town,  and  produces  more  nails  than  any  other  city.  Charleston 
is  noted  for  its  salt  springs. 

402.  Indiana. — Indianapolis  has  excellent  railroad  connections 
and  possesses  extensive  iron  and  wood  manufactures.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  cities  in  the  Union  not  located  on  navigable  water. 

Evansville  has  large  and  varied  manufactures.  It  is  surrounded 
by  extensive  coal-beds,  which  make  fuel  abundant  and  cheap. 
Vast  quantities  of  agricultural  products  and  provisions  are 
shipped. 

403.  Michigan. — Grand  Rapids  has  a  fine  water-power  and  is 
noted  for  its  lumber  trade.  The  manufacture  of  furniture  is  the 
leading  industry.  Ann  Arbor  is  the  seat  of  Michigan  University, 
one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  educational  institutions  in  the 
United  States. 

404.  Wisconsin. — Racine  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements,  and  has  the  largest  threshing-machine 
factory  in  the  world. 

405.  Minnesota. — Duluth  is  rapidly  becoming  a  great  commer- 
cial lake-port.  It  sends  vast  quantities  of  wheat  eastward  and 
ships  westward  immense  supplies  of  coal  from  eastern  mines. 

QUESTIONS. 

General  Characteristics. — Into  what  groups  of  States  is  the  agricultural 
region  of  the  United  States  divided?  Name  the  States  of  the  North  Central 
group.  Describe  their  surface.  State  all  the  points  of  difference  you  can 
between  the  climate  of  this  group  and  that  where  you  live. 

Name  three  things  that  make  this  a  manufacturing  region  as  well  as  an 
agricultural.  What  raw  materials  are  here  changed  into  manufactured 
articles?    What  do  you  understand  by  "raw  material?"     What  three  things 


64 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


contribute  to  make  commerce  an  important  industry?    Which  one  of  these 
also  stimulates  manufactures? 

Describe  the  shipping  facilities  of  this  region.  Why  are  the  railroad  facil- 
ities so  g^at?  Why  do  you  think  the  abundance  of  coal  encourages  the 
building  of  railroads?    What  is  said  of  education? 

Characteristics  of  States. — Describe  the  surface  of  West  Virginia.  What 
of  grain  ?  Live-stock  ?  Coal  ?  Name  the  States  most  closely  resembling 
one  another.  Tell  in  what  particulars.  In  what  five  particulars  is  the 
rank  of  Ohio  given?  What  is  its  rank  in  each  case?  What  of  dairj-ing? 
Do  j-ou  know  where  the  "Western  Reserve"  is?  Have  you  ever  heard  of 
Western  Reserve  cheese?  Name  the  important  manufactures  of  Ohio. 
Extent  of  coal-fields.  Give  the  characteristics  of  Indiana.  In  what  par- 
ticulars is  the  rank  of  Illinois  given  as  a  producing  State?  What  is  its 
rank  in  each  case?  Extent  of  coal-fields?  What  is  its  staple  agricultural 
product?  Of  what  natural  division  of  land  does  Michigan  consist?  Which 
part  is  agricultural?  For  what  agricultural  product  is  Michigan  famed? 
What  are  its  minerals?  In  what  products  does  Michigan  rank  first?  From 
what  part  of  Michigan  does  salt  come?  (See  Physical  Map  of  the  U.  S. ) 
Name  the  chief  productions  of  Wisconsin  and  describe  the  scenery.  In 
what  part  of  the  State  is  dairying?     (See  Commercial  Map  of  the  U.  S.) 

What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  Minnesota  drainage?  In  what  respect  are 
the  physical  features  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  similar?  In  what  products 
does  Minnesota  rank  first?  Are  they  raw  or  manufactured  products?  For 
what  products  is  Iowa  distinguished?     Which  are  raw  and  which  manu- 


factured? In  which  does  Iowa  rank  first?  Give  the  characteristics  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  and  the  chief  occupation  of  their  people.  Describe 
the  surface  and  climate  of  North  and  South  Dakota.  Industries  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  which  State  and  in  what  part  are  there  extensive  mineral  deposits. 
Chief  Cities. — Name  the  chief  cities  of  this  group  of  States.  In  what 
particulars  is  Chicago  the  first  city  of  the  world?  Name  any  other  distinc- 
tion of  Chicago.  Name  the  principal  distinction  of  each  of  the  following 
cities:  Cincinnati;  Cleveland;  Milwaukee;  Detroit;  St.  Paul;  Minneapolis; 
Omaha. 

Original  Studies. — Why  do  you  think  hogs  are  raised  in  corn-producing 
States?  How  many  hog-products  can  you  name?  Make  a  list  of  twenty 
articles  that  are  made  of  wood.  What  kind  of  trees  in  the  North  Central 
States  do  you  find  named  on  the  physical  map  of  the  United  States?  What 
do  you  know  that  maj-  be  made  from  these  trees?  Why  is  the  land  of  the 
Great  Central  Plain  mostly  fertile?  What  animals  furnish  material  for  boots 
and  shoes?  Cloth?  From  what  besides  animal  products  is  cloth  made?  What 
is  made  of  hemp?  For  what  is  copper  used?  Which  would  you  rather  own, 
a  copper  or  an  iron  mine?  Why?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  how  salt  is  obtained 
and  prepared  for  use.  Why  is  wheat  a  valuable  product?  Name  all  the 
things  that  you  know  that  are  made  from  wheat.  In  which  State  would 
you  prefer  to  live,  California  or  Minnesota?  Why?  California  or  Kansas? 
Why?  California  or  Ohio?  Why?  In  which  North  Central  city  would  you 
prefer  to  live?  Why?  What  constitute  railroad  supplies?  For  what  are 
threshing-machines  used? 


MIDDLE  BELT  STATES. 


(Agricultural.) 

CALIF-ORNIA.— Sq.   IVli.,  168,380;    Pop.,  1,308,130;    Pop.   Sq.   Ml.,   7.e. 


States. 


Sq.  Miles.  I 


1 


Population, 
189a. 


Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 


Sq.  Miles. 


Population, 
1S90. 


Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 


Virginia .  , 
Kentucky. 
Tennessee 


42,450 
40,400 
42,050 


1,655,980 
1,858,635 

1,767,518 


390 
46.0 
42.0 


Missouri 

Indian  Territory 
Oklahoma  .... 


69,415 
31.400 
39.030 


2,679,184/ 
74,997 
61,834 


38.6 
2-3 
1-5 


DESCRIPTION.' 

GBNMRAJ,  CHARACTERISTICS. 

406.  States  of  the  Group. — \'irginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Missouri,  Indian  Territory,  and  Ok  la  ho  ma  Territorj-  form  a  belt 
of  States  and  Territories  lying  between  the  Northern  and  Southern 
States.     They  possess  the  characteristics  of  both  sections. 

407.  Surface  and  Resources. — All  have  a  highly  diversified 
surface  except  Indian  and  Oklahoma  Territories,  which  are  rolling 
prairie.  Stores  of  iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions  give  emplo^-ment  for  many  people;  nourishing  grasses 
on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  furnish  food  for  fine  stock;  and  the 
yield  of  tobacco,  hemp,  and  com  on  the  low  plains  is  not  exceeded. 

408.  Forests. — Spreading  over  large  areas  of  these  States  are 
wooded  tracts  of  great  extent.  In  the  higher  regions  the  oak, 
poplar,  hickory,  chestnut,  ash,  sycamore,  and  elm  flourish.  Near 
the  sea  grow  the  pine,  oak,  cypress,  and  cedar. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATES. 

409.  Virginia  is  excelled  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its 
tobacco  only  by  Kentucky.  About  16,900,000  oysters  from  the 
oyster-beds  along  the  Chesapeake  are  gathered  and  shipped  to 
other  States  each  year.  Manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
cotton  factories,  tobacco  factories,  and  iron  foundries  flourish. 

410.  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  are  chiefly  agricultural  States, 
the  vast  mineral  resources  of  the  eastern  portion  not  being  exten- 
sively developed.     The  plateau  region  produces  hemp,  wheat,  com. 


oats,  rye,  barley,  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes.  The  low  western 
section  grows  fine  crops  of  tobacco.  In  central  Kentucky  is 
the  well-known  blue-grass  region,  famous  for  grazing  purposes. 
Kentucky  is  world-renowned  for  its  fine  breeds  of  horses  and 
cattle.  The  largest  cavern  in  the  world,  Mammoth  Cave,  is  in 
this  State. 

411.  Missouri  is  so  located  as  to  possess  a  variety  of  products 
and  industries.  Northern  Missouri,  like  the  Central  States,  yields 
com,  wheat,  and  oats;  southern  Missouri  produces  tobacco  and 
cotton.  Its  manufactures  are  extensive,  and  similar  to  those  of 
other  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Missouri  contains  the  most 
remarkable  iron-ore  deposits  in  the  world.  Lead  is  an  important 
product  of  southwestern  Missouri. 

Though  one  of  the  Middle  Belt  States  the  climate  of  Missouri  is 
severe.  The  summers  are  generally  very  warm  and  the  winters 
cold  and  protracted. 

412.  Indian  Territory  is  set  aside  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment as  an  Indian  Reservation.  The  inhabitants  consist  of 
Indians  who  originally  dwelt  here  or  have  been  brought  hither 
by  the  Ck)verament  from  other  parts  of  the  Union.  Many  of 
the  Indians  have  become  civilized.  These  have  built  towns  and 
cultivated  farms,  which  produce  corn,  oats,  barley,  hay,  etc.  The 
other  Indians  still  maintain  their  tribal  relations,  and  are  sup' 
ported  partly  by  the  Government  and  partly  by  stock-raising.  The 
several  tribes  each  have  control  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  land. 
Each  makes  its  own  laws  and  administers  its  own  government 


}.  Pffon  ivadlng  tliK  dMcrlptlon,  study  map  qnestions  on  Middle  Belt  States,  p.  58. 


THE    SOUTHERN    STATES. 


65 


413.  Oklahoma  Territory  was  organized  out  of  Indian 
Territory  by  Act  of  Congress,  April  22,  1889.  It  comprises 
2,000,000  acres  of  land.  The  land  is  adapted  to  farm-  ,„„  yi^^'^l 
ing,  and  thousands  of  people  have  located  here 
since  the  Territory  was  opened  to  settlers 

CHJEP  CITIES. 

414.  St.  Louis,  just  below 
the  junction  of  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi,  commands 
an  extensive  traffic  both 
by  water  and  by  railroad. 
It    is    the    first   city   in 
population  and  commerce 
in  the  Middla£elt  States, 
and  the^^fifccity   in   the 
Union  in  population.     Meat 
packing  and  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails, 
glass,   beer,   flour,   and    brick   are  the   leading 
industries.      The   chief  exports  are   cattle,   cattle 
products,  tobacco,  cotton,  cotton-seed  oil,  and  sugar 

415.  Kansas  City  has  developed  rapidly  through  its  excellent 
railroad  facilities.  In  the  importance  of  its  railroad  connections, 
beef-  and  pork-packing,  and  its  dressed  beef  market,  it  ranks  next 
to  Chicago.  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  is  an  important  commercial 
suburb. 

416.  Louisville,  on  the  Ohio  River,  is  the  largest  tobacco  market 
in  the  world.     It  is  an  important  exchange  center  of  food  products 


from  the  north,  and  raw  materials  from  the  south. 
large  quantities  of  whisky  and  metal  goods. 


It  manufactures 


MINOR  CITmS. 

417.  Tennessee. —  Nashville  is  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Cumberland  River.    Memphis 
is  the  most  important  com- 
mercial river-port  between 
St.  Louis  and  New  Or- 
leans. 

418.  Missouri.  — St. 

Joseph  is  an  important 

railway   center.      It  has 

considerable     commercial 

importance,  but    is  chiefly 

noted  for  its  manufactures. 

QUESTIONS. 

^^^"'  General  Characteristics. — Name  the  States 
of  this  group  and  give  their  location.  Give  the  three 
physical  regions  of  this  group  and  name  their  products.  Variety  and  local- 
ity of  forest  trees. 

Characteristics  of  States. — Which  of  these  States  ranks  first  in  tobacco.? 
Which  second?  What  of  oysters?  Blue-grass?  Horses  and  cattle?  Iron? 
Lead?  What  of  climate  in  Missouri?  Describe  the  condition  of  Indian 
Territory.     Of  Oklahoma  Territory. 

Chief  Cities. — Rank  in  population  of  St.  Louis.  Leading  manufactures. 
Exports.     Rank  of  Kansas  City  as  a  meat-packing  point. 


THE   SOUTHERN   STATES. 

CA-LIKORNIA— Sq,    Mi.,   158,3SO;    Pop.,   1,20S,130;    Pop.    Sq.'  Ml.,   r.Q. 


States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
1890. 

Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 

States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

PopulaUon. 
1890. 

Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

52,250 
30,570 
59,475 
58,680 

1,617,947 

1,151,149 

1,837,353 

391,422 

30.9 

37-5 

30.8 

6.6 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

52,250 

46,810 

48,720 

265,780 

1,513,017 
1,289,600 

1,118,587 
.   2,235,523 

28.9 

275 
22.9 

8.4 

DESCRIPTION. 

GENERAl  CHARACTERISTICS. 

419.  States  of  the  Group.— The  Southern  States  are  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  Arkan'sas,  and  Texas. 

420.  Surface,  Drainage,  and  Soil.  —  The  surface  consists 
principally  of  the  lowlands  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  slopes. 
The  highlands  are  formed  by  the  extension  of  the  Appalachian 
System  into  this  section.  The  most  elevated  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi  is  located  in  the  western  part  of  North  Carolina.  This 
section  is  drained  by  a  multitude  of  rivers,  which  are  mostly  short 
and  innavigable  above  tide-water.     The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile. 

421.  The  Atlantic  Plain  attains  its  greatest  width  in  these 
States,  and  may  here  be  divided  into  three  parallel  belts,  commonly 
known  as  the  coast  swamp,  the  pine  barrens,  and  the  foot-hill  belt. 
Much  of  the  coast  is  bordered  by  long,  sandy  islands. 

422.  The  Gulf  Slope  consists  mostly  of  lowland,  much  of  that 
part  near  the  coast  being  swampy.  Like  the  South  •  Atlantic 
coast  the  shore  is  skirted  by  long  and  narrow  islands.     The  rivers 


are  sluggish  in  the  low  plain  region,  and  tide-water  extends 
inward  from  200  to  300  miles.  Much  of  the  land  on  either  side 
of  the  lower  Mississippi  is  below  the  river-level  at  high-water 
periods.  Levees  have  been  built  along  the  banks  of  the  river  to 
protect  the  land  from  overflow.  Occasionally  a  break  in  a  levee 
causes  vast  areas  to  become  submerged. 

423.  The  Climate  of  the  lowlands  is  moist  and  hot.  Mild 
winters  and  long,  hot  summers  prevail.  In  the  higher  portion  the 
climate  is  dry  and  temperate. 

424.  Vegetation. —  Forests  of  yellow  pine  extend  along  the 
coasts,  and  the  swamps  are  covered  with  cypress  and  cedar. 

425.  Industries. — This  section  is  chiefly  devoted  to  agriculture. 
The  farms  are  called  plantations  and  most  of  the  work  is  done  by 
colored  laborers.  The  leading  products  are  cotton,  com,  sugar, 
and  rice.     Coal  and  iron  interests  are  rapidly  developing. 

426.  Cotton. — Two  thirds  of  the  cotton  raised  in  the  world  is 
produced  in  these  States.  Sea-island  cotton — the  finest  quality  of 
cotton  grown — is  raised  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  South  Car- 
olina, Georgia,  and  Florida.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  laces  and  other  fine  goods. 


v^Ss^***'^^^""'' 


ft DENVER 


Akpohv 


N 


!«»■  Spring, 

,  -  ^    '    A 

>           ''^y''^'^^^  ^  Los  Animas' 
''i  " 


s-it- 


.J**, 


ST.  JOSEPH     ^^-         • 


i^'v. 


J  ffutch!nsoi\ 


•Xouncil 


Dodge* 


^""^Vn^s^^ 


Fortf 


\^Girard 


(Win. 


i/ifW 


•^fgasS' 


kC*S 


^<lr- 


A  A    !\.f''*""^TTr  S  7  "Piorce 

'^>--i^  1  vJ-'  I  -^^sf        H    ..  •  ^  City  * 

'•■^*ic2yx>tr    «.  i    ■5;.r  K^    Neosho    _©^ 


ttB«y 


<0^' 


-<^* 


'^X^Y.^'"^" 


V 


N 


::^'  7 


^Sf"■«* 


JWJCW:-A! 


i: 


h^N'^  .N*^ 


jOR 


1-      Uj       JCIOW. 

COM  AMCHESyl 

A  •!  D     1      /I  >      \  1  X«J|| 


•Krebs 


*Vl        Jont*bc 


"W?*  ^  ^*"^  '^ 


■K-v 


>^  4- 


CHOCTAW 


L'--«iice« 


V  / 

/ 

/■ 

-J 


G<>/'i>«3<r/7/< «  I            ^*^  +  Par  it 

dC      <Vi  •Bonham 
V        »« , 


PLAIN 


•Abilene 


•  QpeenvUle 


^ii<pA^ 


^Jt. 


^DALLAS 


I        -Dordauelle 

A    IS — Rr-^SSjf     S^^A 


Aricadelphia 

jPrescoU 


.#4wanilm)oi„5 


LCIeburde 


^. 


i; 


Isboro 


^ 


lei  Rio 


•Tailor 


1|    1      SANA^TO^IO 


.\% 


I  Byron 


Natchi- 
toches 


USaline/ 


Alelcaodr^a 


^ 


^ 
/ 


OqiiUte 


DcnXNATUMi 


Caplula  S  lAU-sett  CitiM, 

LugestCltiei, 

Tovna  with  oyer 85,000 pop., mcBHOMD  •[ 

Tovot  between  10,000  £  ^,000  pop., Balelgk  oT 

Towns  between  5,000  &  10,000  pop.,  „ Nm  BtrM  *\ 

Towns  under  5,000  pop., _ _Concord  < 

0«n«li, ■ 


Greenwich 


)UTHER^ 


AND 

BELT  STATES 

B,  112  MILES  TO  1  INCH. 
■SCALE  OF  MILES 


"WasliinfTton 


pBTTOBTUGAStil 


I 


SnrriJU,'Sai'i,J(.X. 


68 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


MAP  QUESTIONS  ON  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Position  and  Extent. — Which  Southern  States  border  the  Atlantic  Ocean? 
Which  ones  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?  Which  the  Mississippi  River?  Which 
State  contains  its  mouth?  Which  one  has  no  sea-coast?  Bound  each 
State  of  this  group,  beginning  with  North  Carolina.  What  is  the  extent 
of  this  group  in  latitude?  In  longitude?  In  miles  north  and  south?  In 
miles  east  and  west? 

Mountains. — By  what  names  are  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in  North 
Carolina  known?  Give  the  location  of  Mount  Mitchell.  What  mountains 
in  northern  Alabama?  Of  what  mountain-system  are  they  a  part?  What 
mountain-ridge  in  northwestern  Arkansas?  To  what  mountain-range  does 
it  belong?  What  mountains  in  the  western  part  of  Texas?  Of  what  great 
system  are  they  a  part?  Locate  the  Staked  Plains.  What  proportion  of 
these  States  lies  within  the  flood-plains?     (See  Physical  Map  of  the  U.  S.) 

Rivers. — Beginning  with  the  Savannah  River,  name  all  rivers  that  form 
parts  of  State  boundaries,  and  name  the  States  they  separate.    In  what  State 


is  the  Cape  Fear  River?  What  river  crosses  northwestern  Florida?  By 
what  two  rivers  is  it  formed?  What  rivers  empty  into  Mobile  Bay?  What 
large  river  crosses  Arkansas?  Describe  it.  What  one  crosses  ItOuisiana? 
Describe  it.  Describe  the  three  large  rivers  that  drain  central  Texas.  How 
do  the  Southern  States  compare  with  the  North  Central  States  in  the  number 
of  large  rivers?  In  number  of  navigable  rivers?  In  length  of  navigable 
rivers?  (For  answer  to  last  two  questions,  see  Commercial  Map  of  the  United 
States.) 

Cities  and  Towns. — Name  the  capital  of  each  State,  give  its  location,  and 
tell  to  what  class  in  population  it  belongs.  Which  of  these  States  have 
towns  of  more  than  25,000  inhabitants?  Name  the  towns  and  give  their 
location.  Name  and  give  the  location  of  all  towns  of  this  group  with  a 
population  between  10,000  and  25,000.  Which  has  the  greater  number  of 
large  cities,  the  Southern  States  or  the  Northeastern  States?  The  Southern 
States  or  the  North  Central  States?  The  Southern  States  or  the  Middle 
Belt  States?  Give  the  direction  and  distance  from  New  Or'le  an§  of :  Gal- 
veston; Houston;  Dallas;  Little  Rock;  Memphis;  Vicksburg;  Natchez; 
Baton  Rouge  (Bat'n  Roozh');  Mobile;  Birmingham;  Key  West.  Give  the 
location  of  Brimswick. 


427.  Manufactures. — The  manufactures  at  present  consist 
mostly  of  sugar,  naval  stores  (pitch,  tar,  and  rosin),  and  plan- 
tation machinery.  Manufacturing  industries,  however,  are  rapidly 
extending. 

428.  Population.  —  These  States  are  less  densely  populated 
than  the  Northeastern  or  North  Central  States.  About  one  half 
of  the  people  are  descendants  of  negroes  who  were  formerly  slaves. 

429.  Education. — Formerly  education  was  received  in  the 
Southern  States  chiefly  by  means  of  private  schools,  but  pro- 
vision has  now  been  made  for  public  schools.  Many  schools 
are  being  established  for  the  education  of  colored  people. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATi;S. 

430.  North  Carolina  ranks  first  in  the  Union  in  the  production 
of  tar,  turpentine,  and  rosin.  Considerable  tobacco  is  raised; 
lumbering  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  pine  barrens.  The  foot- 
hill belt  is  adapted  to  grazing.  The  mineral  deposits  of  the 
mountains  are  very  rich.  Mount  Mitchell  in  this  State  is  the 
highest  peak  of  the  Appalachian  System. 

431.  South  Carolina  is  the  first  State  in  the  production  of  rice. 
The  rice  fields  in  the  low  lands  are  flooded  by  overflow  from 
rivers  elevated  by  the  tides,  the  desired  amount  of  water  being 
regulated  by  embankments  built  for  this  purpose.  Cotton  is  the 
next  important  product.     There  are  valuable  deposits  of  bone 

phosphate,  used  for  making  fertilizers,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State.  Nearly  two  thirds  of  the  population 
are  of  African  descent. 


432.  Georgia,  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  State  of  this 
section,  is  the  leading  manufacturing  State  of  the  South.  Sea-' 
island  cotton  is  cultivated  along  the  swampy  coast.  The  central 
part  of  the  State  is  well  adapted  both  to  cotton  and  com.  It  is 
one  of  the  first  States  in  the  production  of  cotton.  Coal,  iron,  and 
marble  are  found  in  the  northern  part.  Rice  and  sweet  potatoes 
are  grown  in  great  quantities. 

433.  Florida  is  the  most  southern  State  of  the  Union.  It 
reaches  nearly  to  the  Torrid  Zone  and  lies  in  the  track  of  the  north- 
east trade-winds.  Its  surface  is  low  and  level;  and  in  the  south, 
lakes,  marshes,  and  bayous  cover  much  of  the  countrJ^  Its  coast- 
line extends  five  sixths  of  the  distance  around  it.  The  State  is 
celebrated  for  its  delightful  climate  and  tropical  fruits.  The 
climate  is  characterized  by  mildness  and  evenness,  there  being  but 
slight  difference  between  the  climate  of  summer  and  that  of  winter. 
The  cedar  trees  furnish  the  best  wood  known  for  the  manufacture 
of  lead  pencils.  Sponges  are  obtained  in  the  coast  waters.  Pine- 
apples are  produced,  and  the  cultivation  of  oranges  is  one  of  the 
largest  industries  of  the  State. 

434.  States  with  Like  Characteristics.  —  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Louisiana  are  cotton-  and  sugar-producing  States,  and 
fine  crops  of  corn  are  raised  in  all  three. 

Alabama  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  Gulf  Slope.  In  the  south 
are  extensive  and  heavy  forests;  the  middle  region  is  adapted  to 
agriculture.  It  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron  in  the  northern  part,  and 
coal  and  iron  industries  have  developed  rapidly  within  late  years. 

435.  Mississippi  is  nowhere  more  than  800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.    It  surpasses  every  other  State  in  the 

amount    of    cotton    produced.      Cotton    and 


THE    SOUTHERN    STATES. 


69 


cotton-seed  oil  are  produced  in  large  quantities.  Sugar-cane, 
wheat,  rice,  com,  and  fruits  are  produced.  The  pine  forests  in 
the  southern  part  yield  considerable  timber. 

436.  Louisiana  is  entirely  lowland,  no  part  being  more  than 
250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Lakes,  bayous,  and  swamps 
occupy  much  of  the  surface.  In  the  southern  part  is  the  delta 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  sediment  from  this  river  has  formed 
the  lower  portion  of  the  State. 

Louisiana  is  the  leading  commercial  State  of  the  South,  and 
produces  nearly  all  of  the  sugar-cane  in  the  United  States.  Sugar 
and  molasses  are  the  leading  exports.  It  is  also  a  leading  cotton 
State.     Rock  salt  is  the  chief  mineral. 

437.  Arkansas  is  the  only  Southern  State  without  a  sea-coast. 
The  greater  part  is  level.  The  land  near  the  Mississippi  River 
is  swampy  and  covered  with  dense  forests.  The  northwest  is 
broken  by  spurs  of  the  Ozark  Mountains.  Corn  and  cotton  are 
the  leading  crops.  Coal,  iron,  and  lead  are  found  in  the  region 
of  the  Ozark  Mountains.  Oilstone  and  gypsum  are  important 
products. 

438.  Texas,  the  largest  State  of  the  Union,  possesses  character- 
istics of  the  Gulf  lowlands,  of  the  Middle  Belt  section,  and  of  the 
Western  Plateau  region.  It  has,  therefore,  great  variations  in 
climate,  being  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  much  hotter  in 
summer,  colder  in  winter,  and  drier  than  it  is  along  the  coast. 
Cotton,  com,  and  sugar  are  grown  in  the  lowlands  near  the  coast. 
In  the  raising  of  cattle,  Texas  is  the  foremost  State  of  the  Union. 
Wheat  is  also  extensively  produced. 

A  vast  tract  of  land,  called  the  Staked  Plain,  derives  its  name 
from  the  yucca,  whose  tall,  dried  flower-stalk  appears  like  a  stake 
driven  into  the  ground. 

CHI^F  CITIES. 

439.  New  Orleans  is  the  leading  sea-port  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  one  of  the  important  commercial  ports  of  the  United  States. 
Its  location  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  makes  it  a 
natural  outlet  for  j^roducts  of  the  Great  Central  Plain.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  cotton  markets  in  the  world  and  the  most  important 
sugar  market  of  the  United  States.  '  The  imports  of  this  city  are 
unimportant  as  compared  with  its  exports.  Manufactures  are 
increasing,  though  as  yet  they  are  not  important. 

440.  Atlanta,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  has  extensive  manufac- 
tories, is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  the  leading  tobacco 
market  south  of  Richmond. 

441.  Galveston  is  the  leading  port  of  Texas,  and  ranks  next  to 
New  Orleans  as  a  commercial  gulf-port.  It  ships  large  quantities 
of  cotton,  oil-cake,  cattle,  and  cattle-products. 

MINOR  CITIES. 

442.  North  Carolina. — Wilmington  is  the  only  important  river- 
port  in  the  State.  It  is  the  chief  city  in  the  world  for  naval  stores. 
Other  exports  are  cotton,  rice,  and  lumber.  It  ranks  next  to 
Savannah  in  the  exportation  of  turpentine. 

443.  South  Carolina. — Charleston  has  a  well-improved  harbor. 
It  exports  cotton,  rice,  phosphate,  naval  stores,  turpentine,  and 
lumber. 

444.  Georgia. — Savannah  is  the  first  city  in  the  shipment  of 
turpentine.     It  also  ships  quantities  of  rice,  rosin,  and  lumber. 

Brunswick  is  the  most  important  lumber  port  on  the  South 
Atlantic  coast.  Augusta,  Macon,  and  Columbus  are  situated  at 
the  head  of  navigation  and  have  fine  water-powers. 


445.  Florida. — St.  (sent)  Au'gustine,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
United  States,  has  a  quaint  and  venerable  appearance.  Key  West, 
the  most  southern  city  in  the  United  States,  is  situated  on  an 
island.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  sponges,  cigars,  and  green  turtles. 
Jacksonville  is  a  popular  winter  resort. 


PINEAPPLE   FIELD  IN  FLORIDA. 


446.  Alabama. — Mobile  is  the  only  sea-port  in  Alabama.  It 
has  a  large  cotton  and  lumber  trade.  Birmingham,  the  second  city 
in  size,  is  located  in  the  iron  district  of  the  State.  It  is  chiefly 
engaged  in  the  reduction  of  iron  ores. 

447.  Arkansas. — Little  Rock  is  the  leading  city  of  Arkansas 
and  an  important  railroad  center. 

QUESTIONS. 

General  Characteristics. — Name  the  Southern  States.  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  surface?  In  what  part  are  the  highlands?  What  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  rivers?  The  soil?  Into  what  three  belts  is  the  Atlantic  Plain 
divided?  Which  is  nearest  the  sea?  Which  farthest  from  the  sea?  How 
is  the  coast  bordered?  Of  what  does  much  of  the  lowland  near  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  Plain  consist?  Where  and  why  are  levees  built?  Climate  of 
the  lowlands?  Of  the  higher  portions?  Describe  the  natural  vegetation. 
What  is  the  chief  industry  of  this  section?  By  whom  is  most  of  the  labor 
performed?  What  are  the  leading  products?  Of  what  do  the  leading  man- 
ufactures consist?  Compare  these  States  in  number  of  inhabitants  with  the 
New  England  States.  With  the  North  Central  States.  What  proportion  of 
the  inhabitants  is  colored?    What  of  education? 

Characteristics  of  States. — Name  the  States  of  this  group  that  rank  first 
in  the  Union  in  any  product,  and  name  the  product.  Name  the  States  in 
which  tobacco  is  an  important  product.  Bone  phosphate.  Lumber.  Com. 
Coal.  Iron.  Cotton.  Sugar.  Salt.  Lead.  Gypsum.  Cattle.  Wheat. 
What  is  said  of  the  elevation  of  land  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana? 

Chief  Cities. — In  what  articles  is  New  Orleans  an  extensive  market? 
Compare  its  imports  with  its  exports.  What  gives  it  its  importance  as  a 
shipping  point?    Give  the  commercial  importance  of  Atlanta.    Of  Galveston. 

Minor  Cities. — Give  the  chief  distinction  of  Wilmington.  Exports  of 
Charleston.  Chief  distinction  of  Savannah.  Of  Brunswick.  Key  West. 
Mobile.     Birmingham. 

Original  Studies. — Can  you  tell  why  there  is  so  much  lowland  in  the 
Southern  States?  How  does  cotton  grow?  What  part  of  the  cotton  plant  is 
marketed  for  manufacture  of  cloth?  How  is  it  put  up  for  shipment?  From 
what  kind  of  a  plant  is  the  sugar  of  the  South  obtained?  Do  you  know  of 
any  other  plants  from  which  sugar  is  obtained?  Have  you  ever  seen  tar? 
Rosin?  Pitch?  For  what  are  they  used?  For  what  are  green  turtles  used? 
What  is  a  sponge?  How  are  sponges  obtained?  How  prepared  for  use? 
Which  of  the  important  products  of  the  South  are  food  products?  Which 
are  cloth  products?  Which  are  used  for  buildinsr  purposes?  Is  the  climate 
warmer  or  colder  in  summer  than  ours?  What  makes  you  think  so?  Warmer 
or  colder  in  winter?  Why?  What  kind  of  wild  animals  live  there  that  do 
not  live  in  California?  Why,  do  you  think,  is  the  number  of  large  cities 
in  the  Southern  States  less  than  in  the  Northeastern  States?  Would  you 
expect  to  find  large  cities  more  numerous  in  agricultural  or  manufacturing 
regions?    Why? 


I 

<; 

% 

0 

< 

0 


.-■ 

Tj-    Tf    »0    M 

u« 

M                  M 

0.  c 

(C 

•-H     lO    O     fO 

o 

r>.  CT\  vD    lo 

^^ 

»o    r^    CT\    CO 

■*    O     lO    lO 

a" 

a 

P. 

4; 

8  g.8<g 

S 

r-.   <Ti   O    lO 

0     -^    rO    M 

■    o 

u 

.    u 

5 

•    X 

H 

«    u 

U> 

■  TS 

c  a 

S  «  -^  'g 

'A'i^  <'A 

,^ 

o\  O    <J\  o 

&^ 

to     M 

(Uff 

lO    O     ON  CO 

It 

w     O     w    ^ 

•-■         "^ 

P^ 

O    CO     ON  CO 

§ 

"^&?^ 

ui 

u 

H 

«     ^'^    0 

H 

n  -s  -a 

03 

5  S  2  o 

n   o   o  j3 

e8 

n 

a 
o 

li 


2 

0 

1— ( 

h 
O 

w 


3 
a 

s 

4-) 


5  s 

in 


•a 
I     d 


^r 


o  2 


25)  i 


be 


•a 


O    "2 

r5  '3 

.2   o 

1)     o 

a   rt 
eg  .y 

SP  ^ 

be  .a 

•3  lu 


I  O 
u  .a 


^1 

s  s 


rt 


_  !>  _ 

•d  be    • 

!>  >-<  ■!? 

ol  l|     (fl 

h  Xi    '- 

j3  O    o 


•^•s  s 


c 
'^    o 


u 

xn  a    a 

tn  3    5 

•  ?4  o     d 

■^  'C   — ' 

,  00  rt 

^  :^  a 

•2  S5 

^  ii   o 
<^  S    he 


9   «    - 
o   a  V 

-  3  -y 
n   °  " 

9  ^  i 

O     >^    ni 

s«| 

CJ     IP    -^ 

^   °-3 

•     &<  CLi 


«  u,  a 

V  .t:  o 

I.  S  * 

pL,  o  "< 


■V 

> 


rt 


§^    § 

ft^  ^  ►C 


t/3      X 

c   a 


3 

o  _r 

Ph   > 
.«     (U 

u  -^ 

O.    P<    lU 
C    o   -^ 

D  5 


u 

3 

•a 

o 


05  H  a 
s:  n  3 
-*   o   o 


•SS 


o 


w 


C 

'3 

a 

3 
d  V 

•^-^ 
O    C  XI 

«  °:: 

v^  ° 

5  o  « 
u.  .£i  5 

o   X    o 

CO  5  a 

to    rt    13 

rt       .5 

•    ol  d 

^~*    ^  ^, 

lO     o  J* 

Tfi    •;;  > 

O  cd 

U  J3 


tn 


cd 


a 
o 

o   <3 


<3J 

CI 
I? 


Cd 

•O 
cd 

t 

'A 

cd 


o 

't. 

o 

be 
Cd 


_; 

4<i 

.i3 

O 

G 

tfl 

rt 

u- 

i- 

o 

11 

tfl 

be 
2 

> 

4-* 

td 

C/) 

ffl 

[/) 

> 

<u 

43 

ti 

% 

43 

43  cd 

cd  -^ 

Jj  o 

43  (A 

O  cd 

cd  <u 

..  O 


2    t: 


cd 

43 

O 

cd 
u 

"o 

U 

a 

cd 

43" 
cd 


bo 

a 


S  « 

o  o 

•J  a 

a,  3 

O  <n 

!«!  u 

flj  tfi 

1)  cd 

+3  be 


4j  cd 

13  (^ 

■^  a 

i>  a 

I  a 

13 1 

.§  a 


flj  O 

tn  K^ 

4-j  g3 

1)  (^ 

cd  ta 

o  9 

o  cd 


"5     f. 


U  O 

^  o- 

>"  .a 

13  I— I 
C 
cd 


3 
O 


rt 

.2   0 

43    c8 

°  i 

H 

43    a> 

ca 

CJ    > 

s 

■  S  b 

:td 
3 

H 

•a  "J 

M  a 
2  ^ 
'S  3 

cn 


■3  «  °  fe 
o  g 


ca  j3 

u    S 
S  a 


5    ^  s  I  s  a 


J5         o  ^ 


•f!   43 


e  a 


a   ,, 


u 


i?1 


T3  M 

a  « 

cd  4> 

a  ^ 

1  JS 

<ii  " 

^  cd 


B     CO  O 

43     9  .- 

■"   2  >ir 

^^     CJ  O 

O     4J  I— > 

M  ,,  to 

.2^  .. 

a  *^  a 

o  C5  o 


8  -d 

~  t; 


S  a  CL, 


a 


03  V 

.  'O 

v)  a 
o 

.2  M 

u  .2 

3  <! 

P.   g 

I  ! 

"  •-  & 

S  °  V 


^  I"  i: 


a    i 


s  ^ 


.5  &^ 

n  CD  *^ 
r  S=  2 


.S    CJ   C 
3  -J    u 


a  ""s 


i2    4J   ' 
3   *• 


(A    (A  js 

s  £  a 


3  a 

~  s  >> 

3  S  b 

CJ  3 

•r  w-  1i 


^•5  o 
all 

S    CO 

8  «  u 


!5  § 


o  n  g 
S  °  i 
•2  Is 

t».     t.     (A 

QMS 

•o  .  » 
(3    CJ    ^ 


5-°  a 


5       S 


&3 


72 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


with  occasional  summer  rains,  but  the  winters  are  sometimes  so 
cold  that  large  herds  of  cattle  perish  on  the  ranges. 

Arizona  and  western  New  Mexico  are  warm  and  receive  nearly 
all  of  their  rains  during  the  summer  months. 

453.  Grass  not  cut  dries  into 
hay  standing  on  the  soil,  and 
provides  excellent  food  for  cattle 
throughout  the  year^. 

454.  Mineral  Wealth  of  the 
Plateau  States.— This 
is   one  of  the   richest 
silver  regions  of  the 
world.      Coal,    iron, 
copper,    lead,    salt, 
tin,  and  borax  are 
abundant. 

There  are  j-et 
to  be  developed 
many    of  the 
mineral      re- 
sources,    as 
'  some    por- 
tions   are 
not    con- 


are  unequaled  in  number  by  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  earth. 
The  geysers,  some  of  which  eject  intermittent  jets  of  hot  water 
to  a  great  height,  are  constantly  gurgling,  spitting,  steaming, 
roaring,  and  exploding. 


^^^^91 

■ 

'*^***^^|~|lj&q^ri^^g^  — * 

« 

H 

M|d 

i 

^^"^^ 

H^^^^^ 

9 

^^^1 

^^B| 

>>^ 

'  u0^ 

■KC^ 

^^^^^^1 

x^ 

^^^^^ 

l^fev  -r ' 

a 

o 


:^^s»- 


^^^^^ 

Hk^.  '     — 

wht 

Ik 

■K  :       I   B 

Hk^ 

^^B^^  '  '-'      — _^B^| 

Bn 

^^P 

^■ 

BI^^^^SHI 

mi 

veniently  accessible,         **Oo 

owing  to  the  insufficiency 

of  natural   facilities   for  transportation. 

455.  Industries.  —  Stock-raising  is  a 
leading  industry  throughout  this  entire 
region,  but  mining  is  the  chief  occupation 
in  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  Colorado,  and 
Arizona. 

456.  Population.— This  is  the  most  thinly 
populated  portion  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  inhabitants  consist  largely  of  immigrants 
from  other  States,  and  Indians,  who  are 
confined  to  reser\'ations. 

457.  Transportation  Facilities. — In  all  of  this  region  railroads 
are  few  compared  with  the  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  there  are  few  navigable  rivers.  Traveling  between  places  not 
connected  by  railroad  is  conducted  b}-  means  of  stages,  and  freight 
is  carried  in  wagons  drawn  by  mules  or  horses. 

458.  Education. — In  the  settled  portions,  education  receives 
much  attention,  and  the  common  schools  rank  favorably  with 
schools  of  similar  grade  in  other  States. 

459.  The  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  located  in  the  north- 
western part  of  this  plateau.  It  contains  many  varied  examples 
of  striking  natural  scenery.  It  is  especially  notable  for  its  hot 
springs  and  geysers,  which  are  unparalleled  in  magnificence,  and 


YELLOWSTONK    PARK 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATES. 
460.  States  with  Like  Characteristics.  —  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana, and  Wyoming  are  much  alike  in  surface,   climate,   produc- 
tions, and  occupations.    All  are  mountainous,  being  crossed  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains.     All  are  mining  and  stock-raising  States.     The  climate  of  these 
States  is  colder  than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the  Western  Plateau  division. 

461.  Idaho  has  verj-  fertile  river- valleys.     Gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  everj'  county.     Most  of  the   land  is  devoted 
to  grazing. 

462.  Montana  contains  some  of  the  largest  stock- 
?  ranches  in  the  world.  It  is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  iron, 
i^'*"*  and  coptjer  deposits.     Mining  is  the  chief  source 

of  wealth  to  the  State. 

463.  Wyoming. — Gold,  silver,  coal, 
iron,  and  lead  are  the  prin- 
cipal   mineral    products  of 
this  State. 

464.  Nevada  has  a  rugged 

surface,   crossed    by    numerous 

short   mountain  -  chains.      Much 

of    the   soil    is    too   drj-   for    the 

production  of  any  vegetation  save 

sage-brush.     Cattle  find  feed  in  the 

river -vallej-s.     This    State    contains 

vast  deposits  of  rock-salt  and  enough 

borax  to  supply  the  world. 

The  great  source  of  Nevada's  wealth  lies 
in  its  silver  mines,  which  are  located  princi- 
pally on  what  is  called  the  Comstock  Lode, 
in  the  western  part  of  the  State.     The  deepest 
shaft  is  down  about  3,300  feet. 
The  Humboldt  River,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Nevada,  with 
an  estimated  length  of  350  miles,  is  the  longest  inland  river  of 
the  Western  Continent.     In  its  upper  course  the  water  is  rapid 
and  flows  with  a  large  volume.     In  its  lower  course  much  of  the 
water  evaporates,  lea\'ing,  during  the  summer,  only  a  succession 
of  alkaline  pools. 

465.  Utah  Territory  contains  many  fertile  valleys,  whose  farm 
products  supply  the  towns  of  the  neighboring  Basin  States.  Utah 
potatoes  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  Much  land, 
originally  barren  for  want  of  water,  has  been  rendered  fertile  by 
irrigation.  Agriculture  ranks  first  as  an  industry,  and  mining 
second. 


WESTERN 

In  this  'S&i^bory  is  located  Great  Salt  Lake,  which  receives 
the  drainage  of  the  portion  of  the  Great  Basin  east  of  central 
Nevada. 

466.  Colorado  is  crossed  near  the  center  by  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains. The  highest  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  containing  a 
group  of  lofty  mountain-peaks,  is  located  near  the  central  part  of 
the  State.  Colorado  surpasses  all  the  other  States  of  this  section 
in  mining,  commerce,  and  transportation  facilities.  It  is  now  the 
leading  silver  State  of  the  Union,  producing  three  times  as  much 
silver  as  any  other  State  or  Territory.  Gold  is  also  a  leading 
mineral,  and  iron  ore  and  coal  are  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the 
State.  Among  other  minerals  for  which  this  State  is  noted  are 
beautifully  variegated  marbles, 
amethyst,  topaz,  garnet,  jasper, 
agate,  and  onyx. 

Celebrated  hot  springs  and 
a  dry  healthful  climate  make 
some  sections  popular  resorts 
for  invalids. 

467.  Arizona  has  a  hot, 
dry  climate,  especially  in  the 
southern  part.  The  rainy  sea- 
son begins  about  the  first  of 
July  and  lasts  from  six  to 
eight  weeks.  In  the  lower 
plains  the  temperature  is  such 
that  crops  will  grow  and 
mature  at  any  season  of  the 
year,  provided  there  is  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  moisture.  The 
irrigable  land  produces  an 
excellent  quality  of  semi-trop- 
ical fruits.  Cattle-raising  is 
carried  on  to  a  considerable 
extent,  but  gold  and  silver 
mining  is  the  chief  occupation 
of  the  State.' 

468.  New  Mexico  was  first 
settled  by  the  Spanish,  and  the 
present  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
a  mixed  race,  descendants  of 
the  Indians  and  Spanish.  The 
Spanish  language  is  chiefly 
spoken.  Wool  -  growing  and 
cattle- raising  are  leading  em- 
ployments. 


474.  Wyoming.- 


PLATEAU    STATES.  '  73 

^aJCoJU  .        .    .,     , 

471.  Ogden  is  the  terminus  of  several  tijanscontinental  railroads, 
and  is  a  rapidly  gro\ying  place. 

MINOR  CITIMS. 

472.  Idaho.— Boi'ge  City  is  located  at  the  head  of  a  fertile  valley 
of  considerable  extent,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  office  for 
assaying  gold.  Malad  City,  Lewi.ston,  and  Idaho  City  are  the 
remaining  chief  towns  of  this  State. 

473.  Montana. — Hel  e'na  is  i^i  the  midst  of  a  gold-mining 
region.  Butte  City  is  an  important  mining  center.  Fort  Benton 
is  a  center  of  fur  trade. 

Cheyenne  (shi  en')  is  a  distributing  point  for 
a  large  section.  Laramie  City 
is  the  center  of  a  great  stock- 
raising  region. 

475.  Nevada. — Virginia  City 
is  built  on  the  site  of  the  famous 
Comstock  silver  lode.  It  de- 
rives its  support  through  the 
mining  operations  going  on 
beneath  and  immediately  about 
it.  Gold  Hill,  Carson  City,  and' 
Eureka  are  other  important 
towns. 

476.  Colorado.  —  Pueblo  is 
the  second  city  in  size  in  this 
State,  and  is  an  important  rail- 
road center.  Leadville  is  one 
of  the  chief  mining  towns  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

477.  Arizona.  —  Phoenix  is 
the  commercial  center  and  dis- 
tributing point  of  the  Salt  River 
Valley.  Tuc  s6n',  the  oldest  city 
in  Arizona,  was  founded  in  1694 
by  the  Spanish.  The  town  still 
contains  many  of  the  queer, 
flat-roofed  adobe  buildings  of 
the  early  settlers.  Tombstone  is 
the  leading  mining  town  of  the 
Territory. 

478.  New  Mexico.  —  Santa 
Fe  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  on 
the  continent.  Spanish  is  the 
prevailing  language. 


CASoN  of  the  COLORADO. 


CHIEF  CITIES. 

469.  Denver  is  the  commercial  center  of  one  of  the  richest 
mining  districts  of  the  Union.  It  is  a  well-built  and  well-lighted 
city,  with  clean  streets,  good  sewerage,  and  excellent  public  schools. 
It  is  about  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  iti  an  atmosphere 
that  is  dry,  pure,  and  exhilarating. 

470.  Salt  Lake  City  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  Great 
Interior  Basin.  It  was  settled  by  Mormons  under  Brigham  Young 
in  1847,  and  has  always  been  largely  under  their  influence.  The 
finest  public  buildings  are  for  religious  purposes.  The  great  taber- 
nacle is  an  oval-shaped  structure,  seating  about  7,000  people. 

1.  The  Grand  Cafion  of  the  Colorado  is  a  stupendous  gorge  cut  through  the  plateau  by 
the  river.  It  is  one  of  the  grandest  features  of  natural  scenery  in  the  world.  Imagine  a 
cleft  in  the  rock  over  400  miles  long,  with  walls  varying  from  1,000  to  6,coo  feet  in  height 
descending  perpendicularly  to  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  carved  in  all  manner  of  fantastic 


QUESTIONS. 

General  Characteristics. — Name  the  States  of  the  Plateau  division.  How 
is  this  region  formed?  Describe  this  group  as  to:  Adaptation  to  agriculture; 
grazing;  mining.     As  to:  Climate;  transportation  facilities;  education. 

Characteristics  of  States. — Which  States  of  this  group  most  resemble  one 
another,  and  in  what  particulars?  What  is  said  on  the  following  topics: 
Valleys  of  Idaho;  ranches  of  Montana;  rock-salt,  borax,  and  silver  in 
Nevada;  potatoes  and  agriculture  in  Utah;  minerals  in  Colorado;  climate 
and  crops  in  Arizona? 

Chief  Cities. — Of  Denver,  describe  the  commerce,  streets,  and  schools. 
Commerce,  settlement,  and  religion  of  Salt  Lake  City.     Railroads  in  Ogden. 

Minor  Cities. — State  the  chief  distinction  of  each  of  these  cities. 

shapes  by  the  action  of  the  stream  through  ages,  and  by  the  storms  of  centuries.  Imagine, 
at  the  bottom  of  this  chasm,  the  river  dashing  along  through  its  rocky  channel,  which  it  is 
still  deepening.  It  is  joined  along  its  course  by  tributaries  rushing  down  side  caBons, 
which  these  little  rivers  hollow  out  for  themselves  in  imitation  of  the  larger  stream. 


74 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  PACIFIC   COAST  STATES. 


CA.LIB'ORNIA— Sq.   Ml.,  158,360; 

Pop.,   1,208,130;    Pop. 

Sq.    Mi 

,   7.6. 

States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
1890. 

S^°Mi.  1                             STATES. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 
■890. 

Pop. 
Sq.  Mi. 

Oregon 

96.030 

313.767 

3-2 

Washington 

69,180 

349,390 

50 

DESCRIPTION.' 

GENERAL,  CHARACTERISTICS. 

479.  The  Pacific  Coast  States  are  Washington,  Oregon,  and 
California.     North  of  these  lies  the  Territory  of  Alaska.' 

480.  The  Surface  in  the  northern  part  is  divided  by  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  into  two  distinct  physical  regions.  The  eastern 
portion  consists  of  high  plains.  The  western  part  is  mostly  low- 
land. The  princi- 
pal features  of  the 
southern  p^rt  of 
this  group  will  be 
described  in  the 
chapter  on  Cali- 
fornia. 


481.  The  Climate  of  the  part 
east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  is  similar  to 
that  of  Idaho  and  Montana,  while  that  west 
of  the  mountains  is  modified  by  Pacific  waters 
and  is  much  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer  than  interior  parts  of  the  continent, 
or  the  Atlantic  coast  in  corresponding  latitudes.  There  are  two 
seasons — one  wet  and  one  dry.  During  the  wet  season  much 
rain  falls  in  the  section  west  of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains. 

482.  Industries.-/-In  all  these  States  agricultu^  ^Vfti^  ^^'^^ 
industrj-.J  Grain-farming  and  hop-raising  are  the  mest-important 
pursuits  in  the  lowlands  of  the  north,  and  stock-raising  of  the 
highlands.  In  the  south  the  cultivation  of  fruit  is  general  and  is 
rapidly  increasing.  Much  of  the  section  west  of  the  Cascades  is 
covered  with  dense  forests.     Austraha  and  many  of  the  South 

1.  Before  reading  this  description,  study  map  questions  on  Pacific  Coast  States,  p.  71. 

2.  Alask^  was  purchased  from  Russia  in  1867,  for  $7,200,000.  Its  principal  importance  is 
due  to  the  ertensive  seal  fisheries,  centering  at  the  Pribilofif  Islands,  though  salmon  and 
cod  fisheries  are  extensive.  The  sealing  grounds  are  leased  by  the  United  States  to  a 
company,  which  has  the  sole  right  to  the  trade  in  furs.  Rich  gold  mines  are  said  to 
exist  in  the  interior,  but  the  great  snowfall  renders  mining  impracticable  through 
much  of  the  year.  The  mountain  regions  are  well  timbered  with  Sitkan  spruce  and 
yellow  Alaslcan  cedar.    The  open  country  of  the  west  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth 


American  States  are  largely  supplied  with  lumber  from  these 
States.     Gold  and  silver  mining  are  leading  pursuits  in  the  south. 

.  483.  Education. — Much  attention  is  given  to  education,  and 
the  public  schools  are  generally  of  a  high  order. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STATES. 

484.  Washington  is  one  of  the  last  States  admitted  to  the  Union. 
It  is  rapidly  growing  in  agriculture,  commerce,  and  population. 

Wheat,  barley,  and   oats   are   extensively   raised 
in  the  southeastern  part;    hops  and  hay   in  the 
western.     Cattle  are  raised  in  all  parts  and  sheep 
husbandrj-  is  increasing  east  of  the  Colum- 
bia River  and  south  of  SpokSnV.     Fruit- 
growing is  also  rapidly  increasing,  and  is 
gradually  becoming  a  leading  industry'. 
The   principal   fruit  -district    is   in   the 
neighborhood   of   Puget  Sound.     Coal 
and  iron  mining  are  extensively  carried 
on  in  the   same  region.     Coal  is  the 
most  valuable  export  of  the  State. 
Salmon   is  canned  along  the  lower 
portion  of  the  Columbia  River. 

Washington  possesses  a  majestic 

forest  growth.    The  Douglas  spruce, 

or  red  fir,  predominates.    It  grows  to 

immense  proportions.    White  cedar 

is  next  in  abundance  and  size,  as 

well  as  in  commercial  importance. 

The    immense    quantity    and    fine 

quality  of  the  timber,  with  the  excellent 

facilities  for  direct  water  communication  from 

Puget   Sound,  first   attracted   settlement  in 

this  district.    The  State  has  direct  communication  with  the  eastern 

portion  of  the  United  States  by  means  of  two  transcontinental 

railroads.     Puget  Sound  is,  next  to  San  Francisco  Bay,  the  best 

harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America. 

In  1880  the  population  of  Washington,  then  a  Territor>-,  was 
only  75,000.     Since  that  time  it  has  gained  nearly  275,000. 

Normal  schools  are  established  at  Ellensburg  and  Cheney,  and 
a  State  University  at  Seattle  is  supported  by  liberal  appropria- 
tions. 

485.  Oregon. — The  ocean  and  river  waters  that  border  Oregon 
produce  an  abundance  of  different  kinds  of  food-fishes,  which  are 
an  immense  source  of  wealth  to  the  State.  Up  to  the  present  time 
the  most  successful  fishing  is  that  of  salmon.  The  salmon  export 
ranks  next  to  that  of  wheat  and  flour.  In  one  year  salmon  to 
the  value  of  $3,000,000  have  been  packed  in  the  Columbia  River 
canneries. 

of  weeds  and  grass,  interspersed  with  small  groves  of  alder,  poplar,  and  willow  along  the 
water^courses.  The  population  of  Alaska  is  l.etween  35,000  and  38,000,  of  whom  but  one 
seventh  are  white.  The  native  inhabitants  of  Alaska  are  Eskimos  and  .\leuts.  Both  are 
squalid  and  ignorant,  and  show  a  disposition  to  adopt  the  vices  rather  than  the  virtues  of 
civilization.  The  Aleuts  are  superstitious  in  religion,  and  profit  but  little  from  the 
schools  established  by  the  government. 

Sitka,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  contains  but  850  people.    Alaska  has  a  Governor 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  but  has  no  repres«-ntative  in  Congress. 


THB  PACIFIC   COAST  STATES. 


75 


Cattle-  and  sheep-raising  are  two  of  the  most  important  indus- 
tries of  the  State.  Wheat  of  the  best  quality  is  grown  extensively, 
and  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  State.  The  manu- 
facture of  flour  is  the  leading  industry. 

Apples  reach  greater  perfection  here  than  else- 
where in  the  Coast  States.  The  richest  farming 
section  is  that  of  the  Willamette  Valley.  Lum- 
bering is  important,  the  west  central  part  of 
Oregon  being  heavily  timbered  with  pine,  fir, 
and  spruce.  Commerce  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  the  Columbia  River,  transcontinental  rail- 
roads, and  Pacific  Coast  railroads. 


Oregon  has  five  normal  schools,  supported  in  part  by  the  State, 
and  a  State  University. 


:  j\Vi»\Wve5  \ 


mil  A'  (jTii-s. 

[For  cities  and  towns  of  California,  see  chapter  on  California.] 

486.  Portland  is  a  fine  river-port  and  the 
center  of  transportation  in  Oregon.  It  is 
located  on  the  Willamette  River,  1 2  miles  from 
its  confluence  with  the  Columbia,  and  100 
miles  from  the  ocean.  It  is  the  distributing 
point  for  an  immense  tract  of  rich   farming 

land.     Grain,  flour,  wool,  and  lumber  are 

its  exports. 

487.  Se  at'tle  and  Tacoma,  the  most 
important  cities  of  Washington,  are  marvels 
of  rapid  growth,  having  increased  in  popu- 
lation, respectively,  from  3,500  and  1,000, 
in  1880,  to  42,873  and  36,006  in  i8go. 
Coal,  lumber,  and  wheat  are  the  leading  articles  of  export. 

MINOR  CITmS. 

488.  Washington. — Walla  Walla  is  the  center  of  a  fine 
agricultural  region.  Spokane  is  also  an  agricultural 
center  and  noted  for  its  rapid  growth. 

Olympia   is   a  desirable   city  for  residence,  and    Port 
Townsend,  at  the  foot  of  Puget  Sound,  is  an  important 
port. 
489.  Oregon. — Astoria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  ships 
immense  quantities  of  canned  salmon. 
Oregon    City,    Salem,   the    capital,    Albany,    Corvallis,    and 
Eugene  City,  the  seat  of  the  State  University,  are  all  thriving 
towns  on  the  Willamette. 

The  Dalles  is  a  picturesquely  situated  town  on  the  Columbia, 
200  miles  from  its  mouth. 

QUESTIONS. 

General  Characteristics.— Name  the  Pacific  Coast  States.  Describe  the 
surface  of  the  northern  part.  Which  States  of  the  group  are  embraced 
in  this  description?    Leading  industry?    Other  industries?    Education? 

Characteristics  of  States.— Of  Washington,  state  the  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  the  southeast;  in  the  neighborhood  of  Puget  Sound;  the  extent 
of  cattle-raising;  location  of  fruit  industry;  locality  of  coal  and  iron  min- 
ing; extent  and  importance  of  forest  resources;  commercial  advantages. 

Of  Oregon,  state  the  four  chief  sources  of  revenue ;  its  commercial 
advantages. 

Chief  Cities. —Give  the  location  of  Portland.  Exports  of  Portland. 
Exports  of  Seattle  and  Tacoma. 

Minor  Cities.— Wliat  of  Walla  Walla?   Spokane?    Astoria? 


Drainage  and 
»  If"      Physical  Map  of 

CALIFOENIA 


EXPUhMATION. 
'  OOLOSEDARSASofUQddniai&toOwpKdnaO 
CKCOLORSD  ABXAS  dnin  iulo  iliiki  or  |Mrfodkftl  Ukm, 


K£D  LUCES  dtow  Um  chief  ntcr  putiapL 

TKLLOW  lodleatM  dM  nxNuuvn  stopca  of  the  OBBtnl  Talkr. 
,^  6KEB3T  npnaeati  tb«  level  pUiu  of  the  Ccntnl  and  ether 
kwT«Ue7«. 

PINK,  4UdraIa«itaito  th«Mcu«zeepttheCMlnlTal%. 
(KlMHth  Beeb  s  dM^er  tfaade.) 

BLSZ,  the  oetsa  and  pemawutt  Uua, 

PCBI'LI,  praiodkMl  lakes. 
—  FiaOBCSlbovalttoAeitifbetaboTetlMoaeaii. 

LABOX  8UB8  tedkMe  noDBtatn  paaka  oT«f  18,000  fcct  bigh. 

BICAIL  BTAB8  bidtata  peaka  ft«B  1UX»  to  ia.000  feet  ki(h. 


ZM>T  WnH  A  GB08B  indbala  Mlabk  peak*  &0B  8,000  to  U.a)0  ftat  U^ 
u  MKX)  to  8,000  CMt  U^ 


iSECTIQN  FROM  DEATH  VALLEY  .VESTWAflP  TO  THE  OCEAN  (ALTITUDES  MUCH   EXAGGERATED) 


CALIFORNIA. 


77 


MAP  QUESTIONS. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Read  the  explanation  of  colors,  signs,  etc.,  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner 
of  the  map. 

Trace  with  your  eye  one  of  the  water-partings,  and  notice  that  it  separates 
the  sources  of  rivers.  Do  the  streams  generally  flow  directly  away  from  the 
water-parting?  Would  water  or  a  marble  run  down  the  sloping  lid  of  your 
desk  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  hinged  edge?  How  would  tipping  the 
desk  to  the  right  affect  its  course?  Experiment  with  a  board,  the  first 
opportunity. 

Beginning  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  trace  the  bound- 
ary of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  River  System,  noticing  the  altitudes 
of  peaks  and  passes.  Which  rim  of  this  basin,  eastern  or  western,  is  higher? 
What  part  of  each  is  highest?  Which  bordering  mountain  slope  (colored 
yellow)  is  broadest?  Do  most  of  the  streams  in  the  pink  and  yellow  areas 
run  in  canons?  What  do  you  know  of  their  courses  in  the  green  areas? 
Find  the  area  of  this  basin  approximately  by  counting  the  rectangles  formed 


by  the  parallels  and  meridians.'    In  the  same  way  find  the  area  of  the  valley, 
or  plains,  portion  of  the  basin. 

Estimate  the  area  of  all  the  surface  which  does  not  drain  into  the  ocean. 
Do  you  count  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Gulf  of  California?    Why? 

Give  the  location  of  the  following  points:  Mount  Pi'nos;  Point  Conception; 
Mount  Shasta.  Trace  the  Coast  Range  through  the  State.  The  Sierra 
Nevada.  Give  the  location  of  Goose  Lake.  Describe  Pitt  River.  Give  the 
location  of  Lake  Ta  hoV.  Of  Clear  Lake.  By  what  parallel  of  latitude  are 
they  crossed?  Give  the  location  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Of  Lake  Tu  li're. 
Describe  the  San  Joaquin  River.  Kings  River.  Klamath  River.  Trace  the 
Siskiyou  Mountains.  The  Shasta  Mountains.  Describe  the  Salinas  River. 
Give  the  location  of  Mount  San  Bernardino.  Where  is  the  Colorado  River? 
The  peninsula  of  Lower  California?  The  Colorado  Desert?  Give  the  location 
of  Death  Valley.  Of  Mount  Whitney.  Of  Monterey  Bay.  Describe  the 
Los  Angeles  River.  Smith  River.  Mo  ha've  River.  Where  is  Soda  Lake? 
Salton  Lake?  Lassen's  Peak?  Mount  Dana?  Mount  TSm'alpais  (pice)? 
The  Yo  s£m'i  te  Valley?  (For  places  not  on  physical  map,  see  county  map 
of  California.) 


CALIFORNIA. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION. 
THU  GREAT  CENTRAI,  BASIN. 

490.  The  Most  Striking  Physical  Feature  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  region  lying  between  the  peninsula  of  California  and  Piiget 
Sound  is  the  mountain-rimmed  basin  of  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  rivers,  whose  surplus  water  is  poured  into  the  ocean 
through  San  Francisco  Bay  and  the  Golden  Gate. 

491.  Position,  Shape,  and  Dimensions. — This  basin,  lying 
parallel  with  the  coast,  extends  from  Mount  Pinos,  in  the  latitude 
of  Point  Conception,  to  Mount  Shasta,  seven  degrees,  or  nearly  500 
miles,  farther  north.  The  cre.st  of  the  Coast  Range,  which  forms 
its  western  boundary,  is  for  three  fourths  of  its  length  about  30 
miles  from  the  ocean.  The  snowy  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  1 70 
miles  from  the  coast,  mark  the  greater  part  of  the  eastern  boundary, 
lycaving  out  an  easterly  projection'  at  the  north  end,  the  shape  is 
that  of  a  slightly  curved  ellipse. 

The  area  of  this  basin  is  between  60,000  and  70,000  square  miles. 
About  two  sevenths  of  its  surface  is  occupied  by  the  level  valley- 
plain  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  basin.  The  lowest  part  of 
this  basin  lies  along  the  western  side,  because  the  highest  mount- 
ains are  along  its  eastern  border. 

492.  Depression  of  the  Western  Border  to  the  Sea-Level. 

Near  the  38th  parallel  the  western  rim  of  the  basin  descends  to 
the  sea-level,  and  the  united  rivers  of  the  valley  pour  through  the 
gap  into  San  Francisco  Bay. 

493.  Tulare  Lake  has  a  drainage-system  nearly  separate  from 
the  remainder  of  the  basin.  Fonnerly  it  emptied  into  the  San 
Joaquin  River,  but  now  it  loses,  by  evaporation,  all  the  water 
poured  into  it  by  its  Sierra  Nevada  tributaries.  At  times  of 
unusually  high  water.  Kings  River  empties  a  portion  of  its  flood 
through  Fresno  Slough  into  the  San  Joaquin.' 

WEST  SI,OPE  OF  THE  COAST  RANGES. 

494.  The  Klamath  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  coast  rivers. 
The  Siskiyou  Mountains  form  the  northern  rim  of  the  Klamath 

Basin.  The  Shasta  Mountains,  extending  south  from  Mount 
Shasta,  separate  this  basin  from  the  Great  Central  Basin;  and  a 

1.  The  distance  between  the  halMegree  parallels  is  nearly  35  miles;  and  the  average 
distance  between  the  meridians  is  about  27  miles  in  this  State. 

2.  This  projection  is  separated  from  the  plateau  of  the  interior  drainage-system  of 
the  Western  Plateau  States  by  a  water-parting  so  low  that  the  Basin  of  Goose  Lake  might 
be  included  in  either  the  Plateau  Basin  or  in  the  Central  Basin  of  California. 


ridge  which  extends  northwest  from  the  Shasta  Mountains  to 
the  ocean  forms  the  southwest  boundary.  Numerous  spurs  from 
the.se  mountains  cut  the  Klamath  Basin  into  small,  mostly 
elevated  valleys. 

495.  West  Slope  South  of  the  Klamath  Valley.— Most  of 
this  slope  south  of  the  Klamath  is  drained  by  streams  which  flow 
in  valleys  parallel  to  the  coast. 

South  of  San  Francisco  Bay  to  the  head  of  the  Sa  li'nas  kiver, 
near  the  35th  parallel,  the  drainage  is  again  mostly  parallel  to  the 
coast  and  toward  the  north. 

South  of  the  Salinas  River  Basin  the  streams  mostly  run  directly 
to  the  ocean  from  sources  near  the  summit  of  the  Coast  Range. 

INTERIOR  DRAINAGE-AREAS. 

496.  Lake  Region  of  the  Northeast. — The  northeast  part 
of  the  State  lying  outside  the  Great  Central  Basin  is  remarkable 
for  its  lakes.  These  lose  by  evaporation  all  the  water  that  runs 
into  them,  and  thus  fill  up  with  the  soluble*  earthy  salts  which 
hundreds  of  years  of  rain-washing  and  leaching  have  removed 
from  their  drainage-areas. 

A  few  overflow  into  lower  lakes  or  sinks,  thus  keeping  their 
water  fresh;  and  some,  Uke  Goose  Lake,  have  only  ^pcently  begun 
to  save  their  salt. 

South  of  L,ake  Tahoe  the  only  permanent  lakes  are  near  the 
constantly  melting  snows  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  These  lie  in 
elevated  valleys,  with  lofty  mountains  on  the  east  as  well  as  on 
the  west. 

497.  Southeastern  Drainage. —  The  most  important  mount- 
ain-ranges in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State  are  indicated  on  the 
map  by  red  water-parting  lines;  but  there  is  rarely  much  water  to 
part,  so  most  of  the  streams,  as  well  as  the  lakes,  have  dry  beds 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

The  water-parting  which  runs  southeast  from  Mount  Pinos 
divides  at  Mount  San  Bernardino.  The  eastern  arm  of  low,  barren 
mountains  extends  to  the  Colorado  River,  and  the  higher  western 
arm  continues  on  through  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California.  The 
triangular  area  included  between  these  water-partings  and  the  large 
Colorado  River  is  known  as  the  Colorado  Desert,  half  of  which  is 

3.  The  lake,  having  no  ontlet,  must  necessarily  vary  in  size.  In  1884,  its  surface  corre- 
sponded with  the  blue  area  on  the  map.  Sometimes  it  extends  over  the  area  represented 
by  the  purple.  Perhaps  the  lake  will  be  much  smaller  or  disappear  entirely  when  its 
tributaries  are  used  for  irrigation,  and  a  channel  is  dug  to  the  San  Joaquin. 

*solubUl  susceptible  of  being  dissolved  in  a  fluid;  capable  of  solution. 


78 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


in  California.  A  large  portion  of  the  northern  part  of  this  desert 
is  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  gulf,  of  which  it  was  once  a  part, 
and  from  which  it  was  probably  separated  by  the  delta-building 
of  the  Colorado  River.  Occasionally  the  Colorado  River  breaks 
through  its  levee-like  banks  and  sends  part  of  its  flood  northward 
into  this  low,  salt-covered  basin,  which  then  becomes  a  lake.  This 
periodical  lake  is  called  Salton  Lake. 

Another  depression  below  the  sea-level  occurs  in  Death  Valley, 
in  the  latitude  of  Mount  Whitney,  which  is  probably  the  highest 
peak  in  the  United  States. 

PSCUIIARITIES  OF  CALIFORNIA  RIVSRS. 

498.  South  of  Monterey  Bay. — In  the  dry  season  nearly  all 
the  rivers  emptying  into  the  ocean  south  of  Monterey  Bay  sink 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  sandy  or  gravelly  beds  of  their  lower 
courses.'  Usually,  however,  there  is  a  slow  subterranean*  flow 
onward  to  the  sea. 

499.  Rivers  of  the  North  Coast.— The  greater  rainfall  of  the 
north  coast,  and  the  power  of  the  forest-clad  mountains  to  retain  a 
portion  of  the  water,  to  be  given  out  through  springs,  keeps  up  a 
summer  flow  in  even  the  smaller  creeks. 

Los  Angeles  River  looks  larger  on  the  map  than  Smith  River, 
which  flows  from  the  Siskiyou  Mountains;  yet  the  deep,  cold 
waters  of  the  latter,  flowing  through  a  dense  redwood  forest,  are 
scarcely  fordable  in  July,  when  the  bed  of  the  former  is  dry. 

500.  Streams  Flowing  into  the  Central  Valley. — As  shown 
upon^the  map,  many  of  the  streams  draining  the  west  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  sink  upon  entering  the  valley.  The  only  permanent 
streams  flowing  into  the  Central  Basin  from  the  west  rise  north  of 
Clear  Lake. 

501 .  The  Mohave  River  probably  once  flowed  in  a  continuous 
stream  to  the  lake  whose  dry  bed  is  called  Death  Valley.  Now, 
in  the  drj'  season,  it  runs  for  most  of  its  course  beneath  the  sand 
and  gravel  which  fill  its  channel.  In  places  where  its  bed  is 
shallow  it  appears  above  ground  for  a  short  distance.  Near  Soda 
Lake  it  sinks  for  the  eighth  time,  after  flowing  ten  miles  above 
ground. 

Creeks  of  the  coast  ranges  often  behave  in  this  "hide-and- 
seek"  way. 


ARTESIAN  WELL.' 

1.  Some  of  the  redwood  groveB  in  Monterey  County  retain  water  enough  to  supply 
perennial*  creeks. 

2.  The  cat  represents  a  cross-section  of  the  earth  and  rocks  underlying  a  valley  in 
which  it  is  possible  to  have  artesian  wells. 

Streams  running  down  the  slope  from  a  cross  the  upper  edge  of  the  sand-stratum  at  ^. 
More  or  less  of  the  water  sinks  into  the  sand  until  it  becomes  filled.  If,  then,  a  well  is 
bored  at  c,  the  water  will  rise  and  overflow.  The  well-pipe  could  be  extended  up  to  the 
level  of  the  upper  or  out-cropping  part  of  the  sand-stratum  and  the  water  would  fill  it. 

Generally  there  are  many  alternating  layers  of  sand  and  clay.  Some  of  the  water-bearing 
sand-strata  may  not  give  flowing  wells,  while  others— generally  deeper — having  their 
upper  edges  higher,  would  yield  a  strong  flow  of  water. 

3.  Long  before  the  Sierra  Nevada  had  been  carved  into  its  present  form,  when  its  rivers 
flowed  through  broad,  shallow  valleys  into  the  sea  where  now  lies  the  Central  Valley,  a 
period  of  great  volcanic  activity  began. 

Volcanoes  along  the  line  from  Lassen's  Peak  to  Mount  Dana  poured  out  great  quantities 
of  ashes,  which,  washing  into  the  streams,  filled  their  channels  with  mud.  This,  hardening 
at  the  bottom  and  overflowing  above,  sometimes  acquired  a  depth  of  over  i.ooo  feet,  thus 


ARTSSIAN  W:^IIS. 

502.  Number  and  Origin.— There  are  thousands  of  wells  in 
this  State  which  overflow,  thus  furnishing  perennial  streams  of 
water  like  natural  springs.  Where  such  wells  are  possible  the 
geological  structure  must  be  similar  to  that  shown  in  the  figure. 

VOI^CANIC  ACTION  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

503.  Extinct  Volcanoes.— Mount  Shasta,  Lassen's  Peak,  and 
other  extinct  volcanoes  of  the  north  have  covered  the  larger  part 
of  the  lake-region  with  thick  beds  of  lava  and  volcanic  ash.  In 
the  Mohave  country,  also,  and  along  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  there  are  many  extinct  volcanoes. 

By  far  the  most  important  and  interesting  volcanic  action  on 
this  coast  is  that  which  has  preserved  nearly  400  miles  of  ancient 
river-channels  filled  with  gold-bearing  gravel.' 


^--*-^-''/> 


<v". 


cr— - 


L.  Lava  cap.    A,  Volcanic  ash.    G.  Gold-bearing  gravel,    S.  Slate— bed-rock. 

CLIMATE  OF  THF  PACIFIC  COAST. 

504.  Temperature. — The  portion  of  the  Pacific  Slope  which 
lies  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  mountains  is  much 
warmer  in  winter  than  the  Atlantic  slope  of  the  Appalachian 
System,  and  the  diSerence  is  greater  as  we  go  north.  Moreover, 
the  summer  heat  of  the  immediate  coast,  from  San  Diego  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia,  is  less  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  shore 
from  Charleston  to  Eastport;  and,  again,  the  difierence  is  more 
marked  at  the  north. 

505.  Cause  of  Equable  Temperature. — The  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  whose  northern  waters  are  warmed  by 
the  Japan  Current.  These  winds,  almost  uniform  in  temperature 
throughout  the  year,  mitigate  the  winter  cold  along  the  north 
coast,  and  moderate  alike  for  north  and  south  the  summer  heat. 

During  the  summer  there  is  an  almost  constant  west  or  north- 
west wind,  which  cools  the  coast  slope,  and,  pouring  through  the 
San  Francisco  water-gap  into  the  Central  Valley,  gives  sea-breezes 
to  most  of  the  heated  interior. 

506.  Seasons. — The  four  seasons  of  the  Temperate  Zones  are 
not  well  defined  in  California.  Spring  flowers  bloom  in  January; 
and  the  native  herbage  of  our  hills  and  plains  has  in  mid-summer 
the  dead  brownness  of  Eastern  vegetation  in  mid-winter.  The 
year  in  California  is  more  naturally  divided  into  two  seasons — a 
wet,  or  rainy,  season  and  a  dry  season. 

almost  or  quite  filling  some  of  the  valleys  with  a  deposit  which,  in  various  forms,  is  now 
known  as  cement,  volcanic  ash,  and  lava. 

There  were  several  periods  of  volcanic  activity,  separated  by  long  intervals,  in  which  the 
rivers  cut  new  channels,  usually  beside  the  old  ones. 

In  their  expiring  efforts  some  of  the  volcanoes  poured  out  real  molten  lava,  which,  flow- 
ing over  the  deposits  of  former  eruptions,  formed  a  hard  cap-rock.  Volcanic  activity 
gradually  subsiding,  the  final  long  period  of  erosion  began,  which  reaches  to  the  present 
time. 

The  streams,  whether  of  ice  or  of  water;  began  to  cut  new  channels  along  the  sides  of 
their  old  lavaK!hoked  beds.  Wherever  the  bed-rock— usually  slate— was  easier  to  wash 
out  than  the  volcanic  rocks,  the  river-channels  wore  farther  and  farther  away  from  their 
former  beds.  Finally,  after  many  thousand  years,  great  canons  were  cut  where  before 
were  the  highlands  between  rivers;  and  the  ancient  river<hannels,  with  their  protecting 
lava-caps,  became  the  summits  of  the  new  divides. 

The  gold  hidden  in  the  gravel  under  these  caps  has  caused  thorough  exploration  by 
miners,  whose  work  has  revealed  this  wonderful  history. 

'ftrenHial:  perpetual;  never-failing.       *  suiterraman:  under  the  surface;  underground. 


CALIFORNIA. 


79 


MAP  OF 

TOSEMITE  VALLEY 


I 


507.  Distribution  of  Rain. — The  red  figures  on  the  forest  map 
give  a  general  idea  of  the  amount  of  rainfall  in  different  parts  of 
the  State.  These  figures  show  that  the  rainfall  increases  as  we 
go  north;  that  there  is  more  rain  along  the  coast  than  in  the 
interior,  and  that  mountains  receive  more  rain  than  the  adjacent 
lowlands. 

508.  Causes  of  Rain-Storms.  —  The  Japan  Current  is  the 
source  of  all  our  storms.  In  the  North  Pacific,  where  it  gives  out 
most  of  its  heat,  atmospheric  whirls,  or  eddies,  called  cyclones,  are 
constantly  forming,  which  travel  eastward  with  the  general  move- 
ment of  the  air  in  that  latitude.  These  vast  eddies  of  moist  air 
are  from  three  or  four  hundred  to  over  a  thousand  miles  broad, 
and  follow  each  other  at  intervals  of  several  days.     (See  Sec.  145.) 

South  winds  form  the  front  or  eastern  part  of  these  cyclones,  and 
north  winds  form  the  rear.  Observers  have  learned  that  clouds 
are  formed  and  rain  falls  in  the  front  part  of  a  cyclone,  while 
fair  weather  is  characteristic  of  the  rear  half  Hence,  we  notice 
that  southerly  winds  usually  precede  and 
continue  through  part  of  a  long  storm,  and 
northerly  winds  mark  its  close. 

509.  Cause  of  Summer  Drouth  and 
Winter  Rain. — From  the  first  day  of  June 
to  the  last  day  of  September  the  storm-centers 
all  strike  our  coast  north  of  Puget  Sound. 
Between  September  and  June,  however, 
many  of  these  storm-centers  traverse  Wash- 
ington, and  a  few  cross  the  northern  half 
of  California,  bringing  our  winter  rains. 
Evidently  the  summer  cyclones  travel  too 
far  north  to  have  much  effect  in  California, 
but  some  of  the  broadest  of  them  reach  far 
enough  south  to  cause  summer  showers  in 
the  northern  counties. 

510.  Unequal  Rainfall  along  the  Path 
of  a  Cyclone. — A  cyclone  does  not  move 
forward  with  uniform  velocity.  Of  course, 
where  it  moves  slowly  or  halts,  more  rain 
is  deposited.  The  moist  air  of  a  cyclone  is 
more  rapidly  cooled  where  mountains  force 
it  upward;  hence,  the  greater  rainfall  there.  The  interior  must, 
other  things  being  equal,  receive  less  rain  than  the  coast,  because 
there  is  less  to  give. 

511.  Coast  Fogs  and  their  Cause. — Near  the  shore  along 
the  coast  as  far  south  as  Point  Conception,  the  water  is  colder 
than  farther  out.  The  warm,  moist  air  of  the  anti-trade-wind  is 
cooled  in  crossing  this  colder  water,  and  the  fog  thus  formed  rolls 
upon  the  coast,  where,  at  the  shore-line,  it  is  dissolved  by  the 
warm  land  air. 

By  degrees,  as  the  land  gets  cooler  in  the  evening  or  late  at 
night,  the  fog  flows  farther  and  farther  inland.  Pouring  through 
gaps  in  the  mountains,  it  fills  valleys,  which  overflow  into  others 
still  farther  inland;  and  this  goes  on  until  the  heat  of  the  morning 
sun  dissipates  the  fog  by  changing  its  water  particles  into  invisible 
vapor. 

As  soon  as  the  land  is  covered  with  fog  it  ceases  to  get  colder, 
because  the  fog  prevents  radiation  of  heat.  Thus  "  fog  belts"  are 
"thermal  belts,"  in  which  frosts  are  rare. 

1  The  dark  bands  on  the  map  indicate  the  precipitous,  often  perpendicular,  granite  walls 
which  rise  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  nearly  level  bed  of  the  valley.  The  naked 
granite  peaks  and  domes  are  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  valley  bottom.  The  Merced  enters 
the  valley  over  the  Nevada  and  Vernal  falls,  the  latter  nearly  500  and  the  former  over  600 
feet  in  height.    The  first  perpendicular  plunge  of  Yosemite  Creek,  on  the  north,  is  i  ,500  feet. 


Fogs  bring  a  great  deal  of  moisture  to  the  forests  of  the  coast. 
Probably  two  or  three  inches  of  water  drip  from  the  leaves  of  a 
redwood  forest  during  the  dry  season. 

SCBTS^RY  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

512.  Compared  with  Eastern  Landscapes. — California 
scenery  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  States  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Views  here  are  far  more  extensive,  not  only  because 
of  our  loftier  mountains  and  more  level  plains,  but  because  of  a 
clearer  atmosphere.  Our  scenery  is  more  varied.  The  ragged 
peaks,  volcanic  cones,  granite  domes,  and  deep  caflons  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  with  their  mid-summer  snows,  glaciers,-waterfalls, 
and  forest  mantles  of  gigantic  trees,  are  by  far  more  grand  than 
the  equally  beautiful  mountains  of  the  Atlantic  States. 

513.  The  Yosemite  Valley'  is  the  most  accessible  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  the  great  chasms  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada.     It  is  one  of  the  most  famous  localities  in  America. 


FORnST  TRFFS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

514.  Cone-Bearers. — The  forests  of  spruce,  se  quoi'a,  pine,  and 
fir  of  the  Pacific  Coast  exceed  in  density  of  growth  and  size  of  trees 
all  other  similar  forests  in  the  world.  Coast  sequoia,  or  redwood, 
is  the  most  valuable  tree  on  the  California  coast,  to  which,  with 
the  exception  of  one  grove  in  Oregon,  it  is  confined. 

Associated  with  the  redwood,  but  growing  usually  higher  up 
the  mountain  slopes,  is  Douglas  spruce  (commonly  called  pine), 
the  most  abundant  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  Pacific  Coast 
trees.  This  tree  furnishes  the  material  for  the  framework  and 
lathing  of  most  houses  in  the  coast  counties,  while  redwood  is 
used  for  outside  and  inside  finishing. 

The  giant  cedar  also  is  found  in  the  redwood  region  of  the 
Mendocino  and  Humboldt  coast.  The  most  valuable  trees  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  are  giant  sequoia,  sugar  pine,  yellow  pine,  Douglas 
spruce,  white  fir,  and  post  cedar.' 

515.  Broad-Leaved  and  Rare  Trees,  and  Shrubs. — While 
the  cone-bearers  of  California  are  of  exceptional  size  and  value, 

2.  The  giant  seqnola  is  probably  the  largest  tree  in  the  world.  It  would  require  at  least 
twenty-five  of  the  largest  pines  of  Minnesota,  Michigan.  Maine,  or  Norway  to  produce  as 
much  lumber  as  one  large  sugar  pine  of  the  Sierra.  Yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce  are 
nearly  as  large.  Giant  sequoias  are  often  2.=;  feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  300  feet  in  height; 
a  few  are  over  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  350  feet  in  height. 


80 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


all  other  trees  are  small  and  of  little  commercial  importance  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  Atlantic  States." 

The  wonderful  giant  sequoia  grows  only  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
at  an  altitude  of  from  4,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  ocean.  All  the 
groves,  taken  together,  cover  an  area  of  less  than  60  square  miles. 
Monterey  pine  grows  wild  only  along  the  coast,  between  Pesca- 
dero  and  San  Simeon  Bay,  while  Monterey  cypress  is  confined  to 
five  miles  of  the  coast  of  Monterey.  These  two  trees  are  now 
widely  spread  in  cultivation.  Torrey's  pine  seems  to  be  Umited  to 
the  localities  marked  on  the  map. 

Fremontia,  a  shrub  with  large 
yellow  flowers,  and  Carpenteria, 
an  evergreen  with  flowers  similar 
to  those  of  mock  oranges,  grow 
wild  only  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
east  of  Tulare  Lake.  Both  are 
highly  prized  by  European  flor- 
ists. Yucca  and  Washingtonia 
also  grow  in  southern  California. 
The  latter,  which  resembles  the 
palmetto  of  the  Carolina  coast, 
is  highly  prized  in  cultivation. 
It  is  the  commonly  cultivated 
thread-bearing  fan-palm. 

QUESTIONS. 

The  Great  Central  Basin. — Give 
the  length  and  width  of  the  Central 
Basin  of  California,  and  name  the 
mountain-ranges  that  inclose  it. 
About  what  part  of  this  basin  is  level 
valley-plain?  Nearest  which  mount- 
ain boundary  does  it  lie?  Which 
bounding  range  of  mountains  is  the 
higher?  How  does  this  affect  the 
location  of  the  level  and  low  valley- 
plain? 

Where  does  the  western  mountain 
boundary  sink  to  the  sea-level?  What 
happens  here?  Describe  the  drain- 
age-system of  Tulare  Lake. 

West  Slope  of  the  Coast  Ranges. 
What  separates  the  Klamath  Basin 
from  the  Central  Basin?  What  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  next  river-basin  to 
the  south  on  the  coast?  How  is  the 
Klamath  Basin  divided  into  valleys? 
Between  the  Klamath  Basin  and  the 
country  south  of  the  Salinas  Basin 
how  is  the  west  slope  of  the  Coast 
Range  drained?  South  of  the  Salinas 
Basin  how  drained? 

Interior  Drainage- Areas.- Describe 
the  lake  drainage  of  the  northeast. 
That  south  of  Lake  Tahoe.  What  of  the  streams  and  lakes  in  the  south- 
eastern part?  Is,  then,  the  southeastern  drainage  important?  Why?  What 
of  the  elevation  of  the  Colorado  Desert?  Of  what  was  it  once  a  part?  How 
did  it  become  separated?    Where  is  delta-building  now  going  on? 

Peculiarities  of  California  Rivers.— What  is  peculiar  about  the  rivers 
south  of  Monterey  Bay?  How  do  the  rivers  and  creeks  of  the  north  coast 
differ  in  summer  from  those  of  the  south?  Why?  What  marked  difference 
between  the  Los  Angeles  River  and  the  Smith  River?  What  happens  to 
many  rivers  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada?  Where  are  the  streams 
that  drain  the  western  side  of  the  Central  Basin?  Describe  the  Mohave 
River? 


Artesian  Wells.— Copy  the  drawing  of  the  artesian  weU,  and  explain  it. 

Volcanic  Action  in  California.- Where  in  California  are  found  the  signs 
of  past  volcanic  action?  What  has  been  the  most  important  result  to  the 
State  of  this  action? 

Climate  of  California.— Explain  the  temperature  of  California.  What 
are  its  seasons?  What  is  the  source  of  Pacific  Coast  storms?  What  is  a 
cyclone?  What  is  the  breadth  of  the  cyclones  that  bring  our  common 
storms?  On  which  side  of  a  cyclone  does  the  rain  fall?  What  is  the 
direction  of  the  wind  in  front  of  a  northern  cyclone?  What  is  usually  the 
direction  of  the  wind  in  California  during  a  rain-storm?     Why  do  we  not 

have  rain  in  summer?  Why  greater 
rainfall  on  mountain  sides  than  on 
adjacent  lowlands?  Why  on  the  coast 
than  in  the  interior?     Explain  fogs. 

Scenery  in  California.  —  In  what 
respect  does  the  scenery  of  California 
differ  from  that  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley?  Why  do  we  see  farther  here? 
What  is  the  most  noted  feature  of 
California  landscape? 

Forest  Trees.— What  are  the  prin- 
cipal forest  trees  of  California?  To 
what  class  do  they  belong — evergreen 
or  deciduous?  How  are  redwoods  and 
Douglas  spruces  used  in  houses?  How 
do  forests  of  deciduous  trees  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  compare  with  those  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains? 

Original  Studies,  and  Exercises 
on  the  Forest  Map  of  California.— 
Where  are  the  sequoia  forests?  How 
far  inland  do  the  redwood  forests 
extend  ?  (Determine  distance  by 
the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude, 
as  shown  at  the  sides  of  the  map.) 
Where  are  the  giant  sequoias?  How 
could  you  tell  a  giant  sequoia 
from  a  coast  sequoia?  Which  is  the 
more  abundant?  What  kind  of  trees 
grow  on  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada?  What  trees  are  most  com- 
mon in  your  vicinity?  Where  is  tim- 
ber most  abundant,  in  the  valleys  or 
on  the  mountains?  In  the  coast 
ranges  south  of  San  Francisco,  or 
north  of  San  Francisco?  What 
mountains  have  but  few  trees?  What 
relation  do  you  see  between  the  rain- 
fall and  the  densitv  of  the  forests? 
Where  do  you  think  the  water  comes 
from  which  falls  as  rain  in  Califor- 
nia? On  which  side  of  our  mount- 
ain-ranges would  yon  expect  the 
more  rain?  What  benefit  would  it  be 
to  the  country  between  Los  Angeles 
and  San  Diego,  if  the  coast  mount- 
ains there  were  20,000  feet  high? 
What  detriment?  What  is  the  effect 
of  a  dense  chaparral  upon  the  water  which  falls  as  rain? 

Where  is  the  rainfall  heavier,  along  the  coast  or  in  the  Sierra  Nevada? 
How  does  the  rainfall  through  the  Central  Valley  compare  with  that  along 
the  coast?  With  that  on  the  Sierra  Nevada?  In  what  part  of  the  State  is 
the  heaviest  rainfall?  The  lightest?  How  does  the  rainfall  along  the  coast 
north  of  San  Francisco  compare  with  that  south  of  San  Francisco?  Where 
do  you  find  Torrey's  pine?    The  cactus?    Washingtonia? 

Notice  the  rainfall  along  the  coast  from  Crescent  City  southward,  and  in 
the  interior  from  Mount  Shasta  to  Tulare  Lake.  Put  into  language  all  that 
the  map  tells  in  figures.  Prepare  a  good  ten  minutes  talk  about  the  forests 
of  California. 


1.  The  beavT  deddnons  fomti  of  the  Ohio  River  Basin  have  nothing:  corresponding  to 
them  on  this  coast.  Over  90  species  of  deciduous  trees  grow  on  the  Wabash  and  its  tribu- 
taries; and  50  Icinds  have  l>een  found  growing  on  one  eighty-acre  lot  of  the  river-bottom. 
In  aU  California  there  are  less  than  40  kinds  of  broad-leaved  trees.    We  have  no  hickory, 


beech,  elm,  white-wood,  or  basswood,  and  our  species  of  oak,  ash,  walnut,  and  sycamore 
are  either  rare  or  not  valuable  for  lumber.  On  the  other  hand,  our  live  oaks,  madrona, 
man  za  ni'ta,  laurel,  and  other  hard-wood  trees  produce  excellent  fuel;  while  the  giant 
sequoia,  Monterey  pine,  Monterey  cypress,  and  Torrey's  pine  grow  wild  only  in  California. 


R.  D.  8ERV*S8,  tNGR,  N.  T> 


82 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


^TTHE/HOUTH 
OFTHE  JVIINB 


NATURAI,  VEGETATION. 

520.  Wild  Grasses. — The  wealth  of  the  Mexican  settlers  in  California,  and  of  those 
who  came  from  the  East  before  the  discovery  of  gold,  consisted  of  cattle  and  horses,  which 
subsisted  on  the  wild  herbage,  such  as  bur-clover,  wild  oats,  and  bunch-grasses.     Even 
now,  thousands  of  sheep  and  other  stock  live  mostly  on  the  wild  pasturage. 

521.  Native  Fruits. — The  native  fruits  are  all  small  and  mostly  unimportant,  but 
the  blackberries  of  the  Central  Valley  river-bottoms  and  the  redwood  clearings 
are   highly  prized;    and  the  fruit  of  the  Pacific  Coast  evergreen  huckleberry 
is  not  surpassed. 

522.  Forest  Trees  and  Shrubs. — By  far  the  most  valuable  and  remark- 
able native  plants  are  the  forest  trees  and  the  shrubs  that  make  up  the 
growth  called  chSp  ar  ral'.    The  former  furnish  ship-timber  and  lumber 
for  house-building  equal  to  the  best,  and  both  keep  the  rain-water 
from  running  too  quickly  back  to  the  ocean. 

\  AGRICULTURAL  RESOURCES. 

523.  Soil  and  Climate. — The  valleys  and  mountain  slopes 
JL200FBET  °f    California   present    a    great 

fKOM  Mouth  diversity  of  soils  and   chmates. 

^^       (More  kinds  of.plants  of  commer- 
cial  value   can   be   successfully 
cultivated  in  California  than  in 
any   other  State   or 
country  of  American 
All  the  cereals  and 
]/^     all  the  staple  fruits 
of  the  world,  except 
1/^  possibly  bananas  and 

ill     ' lt^^^^^^^^Bl/>^^V^^    cranberries,  find 


NATURAL 

RESOURCES. 


'f^A 


'''^INg 


Oljf 


each  in  a  few 


^. 


r^ 


flNERAL  RESOURCES. 

516.  Gold. — The    resource   first   made    to 
yield  gfreat  wealth  on  this  coast  was  the  gold 
deposited  in  the  placers  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.      It  was  these  mines,  richer  than 
any  that  had  been  discovered  for  three  hundred 
years,  that  attracted  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  gave  California  for  several  years  the 
largest  transient  population  of  any  countrj'. 

For  twenty  years  or  more  after  the  discovery  of 
gold,  mining  was  the  chief  industry.     Now,  although 
the  product  of  the  mines  has  fallen  from  $60,000,000, 
in  1 853,  to  one  tenth  that  amount,  more  men  are  mining 
for  gold  in  California  than  in  any  other  State. 

517.  Silver. — The  east  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  contain  rich  silver  mines. 

518.  Quicksilver  ore  is  found  in  the  coast  ranges,  from 
Trinity  to  Los  Angeles.  The  New  Almaden  mine,  in  Santa 
Clara  County,  has  produced  more  mercury  than  any  other 
mine  in  America. 

519.  Other  Minerals.  —  Rich  deposits  of  the  ores  of 
iron,  copper,  tin,  antimony,  and  other  metals  have  been 
discovered.  Coal,  natural-gas,  asphaltum,  and  petroleum 
are  found  in  many  places  in  the  coast  mountains.  Coal 
and  natural-gas  are  also  products  of  the  Central  Valley. 
Marble  of  all  varieties,  sand-stones  of  manj'  colors,  slate, 
and  granite — all  excellent  building-stones — are  found  in 
inexhaustible  quantities.  Borax,  soda,  sulphur,  salt,  jwl- 
ishing  earths,  etc.,  are  among  the  mineral  products. 


^  i 


|v N G  ,^^\  E ^  c^sm-X^i-j 


■-■-■•g,S?E5 


iJIullHwiV.V!  ,7rt  1 1 1  mi  '^i''^}^}y^' 


innuxaHUuni 


^m" 


THE  (iOUO  OUT  OF 


CALIFORNIA. 


83 


or  in  many  places  a  suitable  soil  and  a  congenial  climate,  the  State, 
in  this  respect,  resembling  the  countries  of  southwestern  Europe. 

524.  Agriculture  Developed  by  Commerce.— The  products 
of  any  country  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  demands 
of  commerce  and  the  means  of  transportation.  The  Mexican 
settlers,  with  limited  means  of  transportation,  drove  their  herds 
of  cattle  to  the  sea-ports,  where  they  slaughtered  them  and  sold 
their  hides,  horns,  and  tallow  to  merchants  who  visited  the  coast 
in  trading-vessels.  Butter,  cheese,  and  beef,  usually  the  most  val- 
uable products  of  cattle-raising,  were  of  no  commercial  value  to 
Califomians  before  the  immigration  which  began  in  1849.  In 
that  year  beef  became  valuable;  cattle  were  driven  for  slaughter 
to  the  mines  instead  of  to  the  sea,  and  trade  in  hides,  horns,  and 
tallow  ceased.' 

525.  Wheat  and  Wool. — Before  1865  the  valley-plains  on  the 
east  side  of  the  San  Joaquin,  and  the  plains  of  the  Sacramento, 

were     for    miles 
continuous  fields 


of  wheat.  Wheat  also  was  the 
staple  crop  of  the  coast  valleys 
near  sea-ports. 

The  people  of  the  Central  Valley  south  of  the 
Sa^i  Joaquin,  and  those  on  the  coast  far  from  shipping 
points,  could  not  afford  to  haul  wheat  to  these  distant 
channels  of  commerce;  therefore,  they  raised  cattle,  horses, 
and  hogs,  which  could  be  driven  to  market  with  little  ex- 
pense; or  sheep,  whose  wool,  worth  much  more  than  wheat,  they 
could  afford  to  transport.  At  first  all  the  wool  was  exported; 
and  soon  there  was  also  a  surplus  of  wheat,  which  was  sent  to 
Europe.  Thus,  California  early  became  known  to  the  world  as  a 
land  of  wheat  and  wool,  as  well  as  a  land  of  gold,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  rapid  development  of  other  agricultural  resources, 
wheat  still  remains  its  most  valuable  crop. 

526.  Orchard  and  Vineyard  Products. — California  soon 
produced  enough  fruit  for  home  use;  but  for  many  years  none  was 
exported,  except  to  Nevada,  where  it  was  taken  in  spring-wagons. 
The  vinej^ards  first  yielded  commercial  products  in  the  form  of 
wine  and  brandy.     Canned  fruits  next  sought  a  foreign  market. 


In  1873  nearly  half  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  wine  was  exported, 
but  the  value  of  the  fruit  exported  was  only  a  tenth  as  much. 
Ten  years  later  nearly  twice  as  much  wine  was  exported,  and 
more  than  five  times  as  much  fruit.' 

QUESTIONS. 

Mineral  Resources.— Which  of  the  natural  resources  of  California  was  first 
largely  made  use  of?  How  did  the  gold  mines  of  California  compare  in 
richness  with  those  previously  discoveredr  How  long  did  gold-mining 
continue  the  leading  industry*  What  of  resources  in  silver?^ In  quick- 
silverr'In  natural-gas?    In  asphaltuni?    In  building-stone?  J  '  1 

Natural  Vegetation. — What  have  the  wild  grasses  done  and  what  are  they 
doing  for  California?  '^What  are  the  most  valuable  natural  products  '■  For 
what  are  they  chiefly  valuable?  5    L  T^ 

Agricultural  Resources. — What  is  said  of  the  commercial  value  of  the 
agricultural  products  of  California?  Explain  the  part  commercial  facilities 
have  in  determining  what  the  products  of  a  country  shall  be. 

Describe  the  wheat  and  wool  interests.  Describe  the  growth  of  fruit- 
culture. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  COUNTY  MAP. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Counties. —  Beginning  with  Del  Norte  (nor'ta),  name  in  their  order 
the  coast  counties  to  San  Francisco  Bay.    Name  the  coast  counties 
between   San    Francisco   Bay  and   Monterey   Bay.      Name   the 
coast  counties  south  of  Monterey  Bay. 

Beginning  with  Modoc,  name  in  their  order  all  the  counties 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  State  north  of  Lake  Tahoe.  Name 
all  the  counties  on  the  eastern  border  south  of  Lake  Tahoe. 
What  county  have  you  named  twice?  Name  all 
the  counties  crossed  or  bounded  by  the  Sacra- 
mento River.  All  crossed  by  the  San  Joaquin. 
Beginning  with  Siskiyou,  name  all  the  counties 
between  the  coast  counties  and  the  Sacramento 
River   counties  as  far  south  as  San  Pablo  Bay. 


From    San    Pablo 

Bay    south     name 

all     the     counties 

between  the  coast 

counties    and    the 

San  Joaquin  River  counties.     Give  the  situation  of  the  following  counties: 

Amador;  Calaveras;  Tuolumne;  Mariposa;  Tulare;  Kern. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Give  the  direction  and  distance  from  San  Francisco 
of  the  following  towns:  Eureka;  Ukiah;  Santa  Rosa;  Napa;  Benicia;  Wood- 
land; Colusa;  Red  Bluff;  Shasta;  Yreka;  Sacramento;  Marysville;  Oroville; 
Chico;  Grass  Valley;  Nevada  City;  San  Jose  (hoza');  San'ta  Cruz  (kroos); 
Monterey;  San  Luis  Obispo;  Santa  Barbara;  Stockton;  Modesto;  Merced; 
Fresno;  Visalia;  Bakersfield;  Los  An  ge  16g;  San  Diego;  San  Bernardino; 
Riverside. 


1.  For  many  years  the  proportionalty  large  population  of  miners  consumed  the  surplus 
produce  of  the  valleys.  The  commercial  routes  were  San  Francisco  Bay;  the  two  rivers 
which  flow  into  it  from  the  Central  Valley,  with  their  tributaries,  the  Stockton  Slough  and 
Feather  River;  wagon-roads  leading  from  the  river-ports  to  the  mining  towns,  and  trails 
from  these  to  mining  camps. 

Imported  and  domestic  goods  were  taken  in  boats  from  San  Francisco  to  Sacramento, 
Stockton,  Marysville,  and  Red  BluflF.  From  these  points  they  were  hauled  in  wagons  to 
Placerville,  Mo  kgl'um  ne  Hill,  Sonora,  Mariposa,  Nevada  City,  Grass  Valley.  Downieville, 
and  other  mountain  towns.  From  these  centers  of  distribution  smaller  wagons  and  pack 
mules  carried  the  merchandise  on  to  villages,  camps,  and  cabins. 

When  silver  was  discovered  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Davidson, 
and  later  of  other  localities,  became  as  rapidly  populated  as  did  the  larger  mining  region 
of  California  ten  years  earlier.  Everything  consumed  in  this  newly  settled  region  was 
transported  over  the  mountains  on  wagons  and  pack  mules.  Good  roads  were  constructed 
—one  by  Placerville  crossed  the  summits  near  the  south  end  of  Lake  Tahoe;  another  was 
called  the  "  Donner  Lake  Route." 

For  several  years  these  fine  roads^  kept  smooth  and  well  watered,  were  throns^ed  with 


freight  wagons  during  the  dry  season.  On  each  road  there  was  a  line  of  daily  stages,  the 
best  equipped  in  the  world. 

More  horses  and  mules  were  required  for  all  this  transportation  of  freight  and  passengers 
than  the  stock-raisers  of  California  could  supply;  hence,  these  animals  were  driven  in 
large  numbers  across  the  plains  from  the  Mississippi  States.  Flour  and  bacon,  the  chief 
food  of  the  miners,  were  in  demand.  Thus  many  people  turned  their  attention  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits. 

2.  Improved  methods  of  drying  and  packing  fruit;  increased  railway  facilities,  which 
make  it  practicable  to  send  green  fruit  to  the  Eastern  cities;  a  rapidly  increasing  demand 
for  our  fruit  in  the  East;  and  a  successful  warfare  upon  insect  pests,  which  threatened 
to  destroy  our  orchards,  have  greatly  stimulated  fruit-culture  since  1880. 

Table  grapes,  for  shipment  East,  and  raisins  have  been  added  to  vineyard  products  since 
1875;  while  dried  fruits  (particularly  prunes  and  apricots),  nuts,  oranges,  and  lemons  have 
been  added  to  orchard  exports. 

In  1881  the  raisin  crop  was  less  than  2,000,000  pounds;  in  five  years  it  increased  to  14.000,- 
000  pounds,  and  in  iSgr  the  product  was  about  36,000,000  pounds.  There  has  been  a  like 
increase  in  the  production  of  prunes  and  oranges. 


86 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


POLITICAL    DESCRIPTION. 

COUNTIMS  AND  GKOUPS  OF  COUNTIMS. 

527.  The  Gold  Counties. — The  mountain  counties  lying 
between  Shasta  and  LSs'sen  on  the  north,  and  Fresno  on  the  south, 
contained  in  1853  more  than  half  the  entire  population  of  the 
State.  Then  mining  and  supplying  miners  were  the  only  occupa- 
tions, and  they  are  still  the  chief  occupations  in  these  counties. 

In  these  counties  large  quantities  of  excellent  fruit  are  now 
produced,  lumber  is  manufactured,  stock  pastured,  and  consider- 
able hay  cut. 

528.  The  Wheat  Counties. 
The  counties  of  the  valley-plains 
from  Te  ha'ma  to  Fresno  have 
from  the  first  produced  the  bulk 
of  the  wheat  crop  of  California; 
but  orchards  and  vineyards  are 
encroaching  upon  the  wheat 
fields,  and  most  of  the  newly 
improved  land  of  the  foot-hill 
borders  is  devoted  to  fruit. 
Oranges  are  extensively  planted 
in  Sutter  and  neighboring  coun- 
ties. 

529.  Fresno,  Madera,  and 
Tulare  Counties,  lying  both  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  in  the 
Central  Valley,  have  the  charac- 
teristics of  both  the  gold  and 
wheat  counties.  But  their  loftier 
mountains  contain  more  timber 
and  less  gold  than  the  mining 
group,  while  their  valley  land 
produces  more  fruit  than  the 
wheat  counties.  Much  of  the 
valley  is  irrigated  with  water 
from  the  mountain  streams  and 
by  artesian  wells.  (See  Sec.  507.) 
Fresno  County  produced  nearly 
half  of  the  entire  raisin  crop  of 
1890.  The  mountains  of  Tulare 
County  are  the  highest  in  the 
United  States,  and  her  forest 
trees  are  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Stock-raising  is  an  im- 
portant industry  in  these  counties. 

530.  Kern  County,  occupying 
the  south  end  of  the  Central 
Valley,  and  extending  over  the  mountains  into  the  desert  region, 
has  a  greater  variety  of  land-surface,  soil,  and  chmate  than  any 
other  county  in  the  State. 

The  Kem  River  afibrds  an  abundance  of  water  for  irrigating  the 
arid  but  fertile  plains.  Strong-flowing  artesian  wells  are  numer- 
ous. In  the  valley  herds  of  cattle  are  fattened  upon  alfalfa. 
Petroleum  and  asphaltum  are  found  in  the  hills  of  the  western 
side.  A  rich  mine  of  antimony  is  in  the  southeast  comer  of  the 
county. 

531.  The  Desert  Area. — Mono  and  Inyo  counties,  more  than 
half  of  San  Bernardino  County,  most  of  San  Diego  County,  and 
parts  of  Los  Angeles  and  Kem  counties  lie  in  the  desert  area, 
where  minerals  of  various  kinds  abound.     In  this  region  are  a  few 


productive  valleys,  irrigated  by  streams  flowing  from  the  loftier 
mountain  groups.  Considerable  stock  is  raised  on  Owens  River 
and  its  tributaries.     Inyo  marbles  are  of  excellent  quality. 

532.  Plateau  Counties. — Lassen,  Modoc,  and  eastern  Siski- 
you have  large  areas  covered  with  lava-beds.  Shasta,  Trinity, 
and  Siskiyou  have  fine  forests,  the  result  of  a  heavj-  rainfall,  which 
also  produces  good  pasturage.  In  the  early  settlement  of  the 
State  these  counties  contributed  considerable  gold  and  are  rich  in 
undevelof)ed  mines.  Stock-raising  is  the  common  occupation. 
Saw-miUs  are  developing  the  forest  resources. 

533.  Northern  Coast  Coun- 
ties.— The  resources  first  devel- 
oped in  the  countrj'  north  of 
Bo  de'ga  Bay  were  the  redwood 
forests  along  the  coast,  and  the 
pasturage  of  the  interior.  Soon 
the  countrj-  about  Humboldt  and 
Bodega  baj-s  supphed  almost  the 
entire  State  with  potatoes,  and 
the  Russian  (riish'an)  River  \"al- 
ley  yielded  good  crops  of  com. 
Now  this  valley  has  fine  or- 
chards. The  chief  exports,  from 
the  Oregon  line  to  the  Bay  coun- 
ties, are  lumber,  tan-bark,  wool, 
dairy  products,  and  live-stock. 

534.  The    Bay   Counties. — 

Ma  rin'  and  San  Ma  te'o  counties 
have  large  dairies.  The  latter 
produces  considerable  lumber. 
At  first  the  Bay  counties  were  de- 
voted to  stock-raising  and  grrain- 
Fruit-culture  and  the  raising  of 
fine  stock  are  now  the  leading 
industries.  Napa,  Sonoma,  and 
Santa  Clara  produced  in  1 890  more 
than  half  the  wine  made  in  the 
State,  and  the  latter  county  alone 
yielded  more  than  half  the  prune 
crop.  The  bay  slopes  and  valleys 
of  A  la  me'da,  Contra  Costa,  and 
So  la'no  counties  are  noted  for 
cherries.  The  Livermore  \'allej', 
in  Alameda  County,  is  also 
famous  for  its  small  fruits  and 
wine  products.  Vegetable-gar- 
dening and  berry -culture  are 
important  industries. 

535.  Southern  Coast  Counties. — Santa  Craz  contains  the 
most  valuable  forest  of  redwood  south  of  San  Francisco.  Lumber, 
lime,  leather,  butter,  and  cheese  are  exported.  Monterey  and  San 
Be(ba)nrto  produce  considerable  fruit,  but  barley  and  stock  are 
the  leading  products.  Along  the  streams  of  the  Monterej-  coast 
are  some  fine  gfroves  of  redwood.  Salinas  potatoes  are  notable. 
San  Luis  Obispo  adds  to  grain-raising  and  dairj'ing,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  flax,  beans,  and  fruit.  Chromium  ore  is  exported,  and 
asphaltum  beds  are  worked.  Santa  Barbara  is  noted  for  its  olives, 
beans,  and  natural-gas.  Ventura  County  produces  beans,  honey, 
stock,  petroleum,  and  asphaltum. 

Los  Angeles  and  Orange  counties,  with  the  western  slopes  of 
San  Bemardino  and  San  Diego,  produced,  in  1890,  the  bulk  of  the 


CALIFORNIA. 


87 


orange  and  lemon  crop  of  this  coast.  In  that  year  about  1,500 
car-loads  were  shipped  from  Riverside.  Raisins,  dried  apricots, 
wine,  and  honey  are  important  products  of  these  counties.  Dates 
are  cultivated.  Considerable  petroleum  is  obtained  in  Los  Angeles 
County. 


540.  State  University. — This,  the  highest  public  institution 
of  learning  in  the  State,  has  been  growing  in  size  and  efficiency 
since  its  establishment  in  1 869.  The  Agricultural  Department  is 
one  of  the  best  equipped  in  the  United  States. 

The  Lick  Observatory  is  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Regents 
of  the  University.  The  great  structure  is 
situated  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Ham- 
ilton, 13  miles  east  of  San  Jos6.  The 
Lick  Telescope  is  the  largest  of  its  kind 


is  the  chief  industry.  The  numerous  medicinal  springs  are  favor- 
ite places  of  summer  resort.  The  only  large  deposit  of  borax  west 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  in  this  county. 

537.  Alpine  County  is  well  named.  Its  rugged  mountains 
contain  silver  mines,  timber,  and  summer  pasturage  for  stock. 

ISI^ANDS. 

538.  The  Channel  Islands,  south  of  the  Santa  Barbara  coast, 
are  mountainous,  rising  in  Santa  Cruz  Island  to  a  height  of  2,400 
feet.  Chaparral  and  .small  trees  cover  most  of  t-he  surface,  but 
there  is  pasturage  for  several  thousand  sheep.  Santa  Catalina 
Island  belongs  to  Los  Angeles  County.  It  is  a  resort  for  fisher- 
men and  pleasure-seekers.  San  Nicolas  has  considerable  level 
and  fertile  land.     It  belongs  to  Ventura  County. 

MDUCATIONAI,  INSTITUTIONS. 

539.  The  Public  Schools  of  California  are  equal  to  those  of 
any  State  in  the  Union.  All  the  cities  and  larger  towns  have  high 
schools,  supported  by  local  taxation;  and  neighboring  districts 
may  unite  in  the  establishment  and  support  of  a  union  high 
school.      Many  of  the  high  schools  fit  pupils  for  entering  the 


L    L03ANCELE5. 


in  the  world.     It  is  over  fifty  feet  long,  and  has  an  object-glass 
three  feet  in  diameter. 

541.  Normal  Schools. — The  State  supports  three  schools  for 
the  instruction  and  training  of  those  who  intend  to  become 
teachers.  The  oldest  and  largest  of  these  schools  is  located  in 
San  Josd.  The  next  largest  is  in  Los  Angeles,  and  the  third  in 
size  and  age  is  in  Ch'i'co. 

542.  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University  was  opened  for  students 
in  October,  1891.      It  is  situated  in  Santa  Clara  County,  near 

Mayfield,  upon  the  Pa'lo  Al'to  Ranch.    This  school 

is  the  gift  of  Leland 
Stanford  to  the  world 
for  the  free  education 
of  all  who  are  quali- 
fied to  enter  it. 


A  CORKER  m  LELAND  STAKPORD,  JR.,  nNIVERSITY. 

charitable;  institutions. 

543.  State  Insane  Asylums  have  been  estabhshed  at  Stock- 
ton, Napa,  Agnews  (Santa  Clara  County),  and  Mendo^i'no. 
There  is  also  an  asylum  for  insane  and  inebriates  at  San  Bernar- 
dino. 

544.  The  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind  Asylum  is  in  Berkeley. 
A  home  for  adult  blind  has  been  established  in  Oakland. 


88 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


545.  Reform  Schools. — Two  of  these  are  supported  by  the 
State — one  at  lone,  called  the  Preston  School  of  Industry,  and 
another  for  children  at  Whittier,  Los  Angeles  County. 

546.  A  Home  for  the  Feeble-Minded  is  located  at  Glen 
Ellen,  Sonoma  County.  Besides  these  institutions  the  State  gives 
aid  to  over  thirty  charitable  associations. 

547.  State  Prisons  are  located  at  San  Quen'tin,  in  Marin 
County,  and  For(ful)som,  in  Sacramento  County. 

CITIBS  AND  TOWNS. 

548.  General  Description. — More  than  half  the  people  of 
California  live  in  cities,  towns,  and  villages.  Nine  cities  have 
populations  of  over  io,ooo.  These,  named  in  order  according  to 
size,  are:  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  Oakland,  Sacramento,  San 
Jos^,  San  Diego,  Stockton,  Alameda,  and  Fresno.  San  Francisco 
has  about  306,000  inhabitants;  the  other  eight  cities  together,  about 
200,000.  All  are  situated  on  navigable  waters,  except  Los  An- 
geles, San  Josd,  and  Fresno.  All  are  well  suppUed  with  street-car 
lines  and  electric  railways,  which  often  run  far  into  the  country. 

549.  San  Francisco,  by  far  the  most  important  city  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  of  America,  is  built  upon  the  bay  slope  of  the  hilly 
peninsula  south  of  the  Golden  Gate.     A  military'  reservation,  called 


550.  Oakland,  Alameda,  and  Berkeley,  across  the  bay,  east  of 
San  Francisco,  have  close  social  and  business  relations  with  the 
latter  city.     A  large  number  of  the  people  who  have  homes  in 


A  STREET  CORNER   IN  SAN   FRANCISCO. 

TAe  Presidio,  occupies  over  two  square  miles  along  the  north 
shore;  and  Golden  Gate  Park  extends  from  the  present  western 
suburbs  three  miles  to  the  ocean  beach.' 

The  important  manufactures  of  San  Francisco  consist  of  mining 
machinery,  wire  cables,  fruit  cans  and  boxes,  and  heavy  iron 
work.  The  chief  exports  are  wheat;  flour;  fruits,  canned  and 
dried;  wine;  wool;  lumber,  and  gold. 

I.  It  wai  in  tbe  sbeltor  of  these  UlU  that  Mission  Do  lor'es  was  established,  several  years 
before  a  city  began  to  grow  at  the  landing  where  now  the  custom-house  stands. 

The  legal  city  limits  embrace  the  entire  county,  which  includes  about  40  square  miles  of  the 
peninsula.  The  northeast  quarter  of  this  area  is  now  nearly  covered  with  houses,  streets, 
and  public  plazas.  Most  of  the  finest  residences  are  on  hills,  joo  or  300  feet  above  the  busi- 
ness portions  of  the  city.  Cable  roads  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  blocks  cross  these  hills, 
making  the  high  parts  of  the  city  as  accessible  as-  any.  The  first  car  ever  drawn  by  an 
underground  cable  began  to  run  on  Clay  Street  in  1873. 

Among  the  notable  buildings  in  San  Francisco  are  the  City  Hall,  which,  though  unfin- 


ITALIAN   FISHING   BOATS   IN  SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY. 

these  cities  are  engaged  in  business  in  San  Francisco.  Ferry-boats 
cross  the  bay  ever>'  fifteen  minutes  during  the  hours  usually  devoted 
to  business  or  recreation. 

Although  Oakland  and  Alameda  are  mainly 
made  up  of  residences  and  retail  stores  and  shops, 
there  are  some  important  manufactories,  among 
the  products  of  which  are  nails,  soap,  canned 
goods,  pottery,  and  rope. 

Berkeley,  the  site  of  the  State  university,  and  of 
the  institution  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  the  blind,  is  built  upon  a  slight  eleva- 
tion, opposite  the  Golden  Gate.  Many  excellent 
private  schools  are  located  here. 

551.  Los  Angeles,  the  chief  citj'  of  the  south- 
em  coast  slope,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  region  whose 
resources  have  been  rapidly  developed  since  1884. 
Transcontinental  railways,  furnishing  direct  com- 
munication with  the  coast,  and  railways  leading 
northward  through  the  Central  Valley  and  along 
the  coast,  together  with  many  short  lines  which 
collect  the  abundant  produce  of  the  surrounding 
country,  make  this  inland  city  a  great  commercial 
center. 

552.  Sacramento,'  the  State  capital,  has  been 
from  the  first  an  important  commercial  citj-.  The 
necessities  of  the  surrounding  country  caused  the 

early  establishment  of  flouring-mills,  and  manufactories  for  the 
making  of  agricultural  implements.  The  car-shops  of  the  Central 
Pacific  Railroad  cover,  with  their  yards,  thirty-six  acres.  Large 
quantities  of  malt  liquors  are  made.  The  capitol,  which  cost  over 
$2,500,000,  is  one  of  the  finest  state-houses  in  America.  The 
Crocker  Art  Galler>-  contains  the  most  valuable  collection  of  paint- 
ings on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

553.  San  Jose  is  nearly  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  richest  and 

ished,  has  cost  over  |4,ooo,ooo;  the  United  States  Mint;  the  Palace  Hotel,  and  several  fine 
residences  on  California  Street,  which  cost  from  $1,000,000  to  more  than  $2,000,000  each. 

There  are  many  libraries,  among  the  most  valuableof  which  are  the  Free  Public  Library, 
the  Mercantile  Library,  the  Mechanics'  Institute  Library,  and  the  Sutro  Library. 

'2.  The  street  scenes  in  Sacramento  have  changed  greatly  since  the  completion  of  the  first 
overland  railway.  From  1863  to  1S&)  the  streets  were  thronged  in  the  dry  season  with 
freight  wagons,  which  were  drawn  by  teams  of  from  ten  to  sixteen  mules  or  horses, 
bearing  above  their  collars  arches  of  bells,  which  kept  up  a  continual  Jingling.  There 
were  no  street-cars  then,  and  carriages  were  scarce. 


CALIFORNIA. 


89 


most  beautiful  valleys  in  the  State.  Three  lines  of  railways 
connect  it  with  San  Francisco.  Canned  fruit,  wine,  and  beer  are 
leading  productions. 

554.  San  Diego  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  this  coast.  The 
climate  attracts  tourists  and  invalids.  The  Coronado  Hotel  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

555.  Stockton,  like  Sacramento,  began  in  an  early  day  to  man- 
ufacture flour  and  agricultural  implements.  Natural-gas  supplies 
an  abundance  of  fuel  and  light. 

556.  Fresno,  the  smallest  of  the  nine  chief  cities  of  California, 
had,  in  i88o,  a  population  of  only  1,112;  in  1890  its  population 
was  10,818,  or  nearly  ten  times  as  great.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the 
chief  raisin-producing  region  of  America. 

QUESTIONS. 

Counties  and  Groups  of  Counties. — Describe  the  situation  of  the  gold 
counties.  What  products  other  than  gold  are  found  in  these  counties? 
Describe  the  location  of  the  wheat  counties.  What  other  important  agri- 
cultural products  in  these  counties?  Describe  the  two  counties  that  partake 
cf  the  characteristics  of  both  groups.  Describe  the  desert  area.  The  plateau 
counties.  Northern  coast  counties.  The  Bay  counties.  The  southern  coast 
counties.     Lake  County.     Alpine  County. 

Islands.;— Describe  the  Channel  Islands.     Santa  Catalina.     San  Nicolas. 

Educational  Institutions. — What  is  said  of  the  public  schools  of  California? 
Of  high  schools?  What  of  the  growth  of  the  State  University?  Of  its 
Agricultural  Department?  Of  the  Lick  Observatory?  What  are  normal 
schools  for?  How  many  in  the  State,  and  where  situated?  What  is  said  of 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University?     By  whom  was  it  founded? 

Charitable  Institutions. — How  many  asylums  for  the  insane,  and  where 
situated?     Asylums  for  the  deaf,  dumb,   and   blind?     How  many  reform 


schools,  and  where  situated?    Name  and  give  location  of  other  charitable 
institutions. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Name  the  nine  chief  cities  of  California.  How  is 
San  Francisco  situated?  What  are  its  chief  manufactures?  Its  chief  exports? 
Name  the  three  principal  remaining  cities  on  San  Francisco  Bay.  For 
what  manufactures  are  Oakland  and  Alameda  noted?  For  what  is  Berke- 
ley distinguished?  Name  three  important  facts  respecting  Los  Angeles., 
( Besides  these,  what  is  its  chief  educational  distinction?"  For  what  four 
lines  of  manufacture  is  Sacramento  noted?  Give  the  location  and  chief 
industrial  distinction  of  San  Jos6.  Its  educational  distinction.  Which  are 
the  two  most  important  statements  about  San  Diego?  For  what  is  Stockton 
noted?     Fresno?  / 

Thought  Questions  on  Political  and  Physical  Maps  of  California. — (Con- 
sult all  three  maps  of  California.)  What  becomes  of  the  water  that  falls  as 
rain  in  Inyo  County?  What  river  emptying  into  the  ocean  rises  in  San 
Bernardino  County?  What  river  of  the  Central  Valley  rises  in  Mono 
County?  What  counties  are  entirely  within  the  Central  Valley?  Which 
one  of  these  is  entirely  inclosed  by  mountains?  Smith  River,  in  Del  Norte 
County,  empties  more  water  into  the  ocean  than  Salinas  River,  which  is 
much  longer:  Can  you  explain  this?  (See  Forest  Map.)  The  Salinas  River 
is  much  lower  in  June  than  in  March,  but  the  Mokelumne  River  is  often 
higher  in  June  than  in  March:  Can  you  give  reasons  for  this  difiference? 
The  Calaveras,  near  the  Mokelumne,  has  no  June  freshet:  Why  not?  On 
what  mountains  have  you  seen  snow  in  July?  How  high  are  they?  What 
other  mountains  of  tlie  State  do  you  think  are  capped  with  snow  in  July? 
From  what  peak  do  you  think  you  could  see  the  most  snow?  What  side  of 
a  peak  has  the  most  snow  in  the  summer?  What  becomes  of  the  water 
which  flows  out  of  Lake  Tahoe?  Clear  Lake?  What  counties  have  large 
deserts?  What  part  of  San  Bernardino  County  is  populous?  Of  San  Diego 
County?  Of  Kern  County?  Why?  (See  Forest  Map. )  What  do  you  think 
is  the  chief  freight  on  the  railways  in  Humboldt  County?  Where  is  Keeler? 
What  do  you  think'is  the  chief  use  of  the  railway  to  Keeler?  Where  is 
Fresno?  What  would  you  expect  to  find  on  freight  cars  laden  for  the  East 
at  Fresno,  in  October? 


QUESTIONS  ON  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES- 

{Answer  these  questions  from  the  open  map.] 


Preliminary. — What  is  commerce?  Domestic  commerce?  Foreign  com- 
merce? What  are  imports?  Exports?  What  are  artificial  and  what  are 
natural  routes  of  commerce? 

Locality  of  Population. — What  proportion  of  the  cities  of  more  than  25,000 
inhabitants  lies  east  of  80°  west  longitude?  (In  addition  to  those  named  on 
this  map  there  are  30  cities  east  of  80°  with  more  than  25,000  inhabitants.) 
About  what  part  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  lies  east  of  80°  ?  What  do 
the  answers  to  these  questions  indicate  respecting  the  locality  and  area  of 
the  chief  manufacturing  and  commercial  interests  of  the  United  States? 

F'ind  and  name  all  the  cities  of  more  than  25,000  inhabitants  south  of  the 
parallel  of  35°  north  latitude.  Between  the  parallels  of  35°  and  40°.  Between 
the  parallels  of  40°  and  45°.  North  of  45°.  Would  you  expect  to  find  the 
manufacturing  and  commercial  industries  more  extensive  north  or  south  of 
the  parallel  of  40°  ?     Why? 

Main  Trunk  Lines. — How  many  main  trunk  lines  eastward  from  San 
Francisco?  From  Los  Angeles?  From  Portland?  From  Seattle  and  Tacoma? 
Beginning  at  the  most  northerly  point,  find  and  tell  at  what  points  main 
trunk  lines  cross  the  Missouri  River,  and  how  many  lines  cross  at  each  point. 
At  what  points  do  they  cross  the  Mississippi  River,  and  how  many  at  each 
point?  Starting  at  San  Francisco  and  following  main  trunk  lines  eastward,  at 
what  points  may  you  choose  to  cross  the  Missouri  River?  What  is  the  most 
northerly  point  at  which  you  may  choose  to  cross  the  Mississippi  River? 
The  most  southerly?  At  what  points  between  these  may  you  cross  it?  At 
what  point  west  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  does  the  largest  number  of 
main  trunk  lines  center?  What  main  trunk  line  crosses  the  continent  almost 
wholly  outside  the  United  States?  What  is  its  western  terminal  point?  Its 
eastern?  How  many  and  what  are  the  terminal  points  of  main  trunk  lines 
on  the   Atlantic   Coast?     On  the  Pacific  Coast?     (Though  not  on   Pacific 

1.  Many  of  the  rivers  shown  on  the  map  to  be  navigable  are  now  little  used  in  the  upper 
part  of  their  navigable  course.  Formerly  there  was  considerable  river  shipping  as 
far  up  the  Missouri  as  Fort  Benton,  at  the  head  of  navigation.  Now  boats  rarely 
pass  above  Omaha  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  even  below  Omaha  river  shipments 
are  light.  The  introduction  of  railroads  has  changed  the  mode  of  travel  and  transporta- 
tion of  freight. 

2.  A  canal  is  an  artificial  channel  constructed  to  admit  a  volume  of  water  deep  enough 


waters,  Los  Angeles  and  Portland  may  both  be  regarded  as  terminal  points 
of  main  trunk  lines  on  the  Pacific  Coast.) 

Navigable  Rivers.' — Beginning  at  the  north,  name  all  the  navigable  rivers 
you  can  that  flow  into  the  Atlantic.  Name  all  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  In  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  In  which  of  these  three  divisions  do  you  find  the 
greatest  extent  of  navigable  waters? 

Canals.' — What  point  on  Lake  Erie  is  connected  by  canal  with  Albany? 
What  point  on  the  Ohio  River  is  connected  by  canal  with  Toledo  on  Lake 
Erie?  What  other  point  on  Lake  Erie  is  connected  by  canal  with  the  Ohio 
River?  What  city  on  Lake  Michigan  is  connected  by  canal  with  the  Illinois 
River? 

Comparisons. — Which  of  the  three  modes  of  travel  indicated  on  the  map- 
by  railroad,  river  and  lake,  or  canal — is  the  most  rapid?  The  least  rapid? 
What  force  propels  railroad  trains?  What  force  is  chiefly  employed  to 
propel  river  and  lake  boats?  What  to  propel  canal  boats?  (See  note.)  By 
which  mode  can  you  travel  or  send  freight  most  cheaply?  Why  do  you 
think  so  and  why  should  it  be  so?  Between  San  Francisco  and  Europe,  by 
what  line  would  you  expect  freight  to  be  cheapest?    Why? 

Domestic  Commerce. — Select  three  large  cities  of  the  Atlantic  Coast,  three 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  three  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Study  the  map  in 
the  locality  of  each  and  see  what  the  industries  and  productions  are,  and  then 
write  a  paper  to  tell  the  kind  of  freight  you  think  the  east  and  west  lines 
between  them  would  carry,  and  why  you  think  so. 

Foreign  Commerce. — Between  what  four  Atlantic  cities  and  Europe  are 
export  products  indicated?  What  two  Atlantic  ports  are  indicated  as  im- 
porting cities?  Between  what  Gulf  city  and  Europe  are  export  products 
indicated?    What  exports? 

to  carry  boats  or  barges  laden  with  merchandise.  These  boats  are  usually  drawn  by 
horses,  which  travel  on  a  narrow  road,  called  a  ttnv'patk,  made  at  the  side  of  the  canal. 
Most  of  the  canals  in  this  country  are  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  north  of  the  Ohio. 
The  canal  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  River  is  used  chiefly  to  transport  grain. 
The  canals  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  are  used  principally  to  carry  iron  ore  and  coal. 
The  canals  connecting  Lake  Krie  with  the  Ohio  River,  and  that  connecting  Chicago  with 
the  niinois  River,  are  used  for  general  merchandise. 


ST_A^]SrX)  A.RX)         TTIVTT:         Vv 


I^f^      75°_MERIDIAN  TIME  f    INTEKCOLONIAL  OR     /^T%    6°'"^ 


i^"V 


lll"-^ii 


EWn»tU( 


ifou/tt 


Tbossb 


a  MOINESfl 

fBiuirJ 


1  ^*L      e* 


irdopiW.""! 


iLiiir^Li)ir™_r  B  tlt^    'I    J      ijiT-:jrj      *\\\       "~  \  ifo*i''  \ 

■^7r'^^>fe''^M^fe-t£^'^^^^W^^    WW      ^-^    \  B»;^-'''"  \ 

^^^^^^H^*' L>^  y*^  T'^^  \ 


M 


1  >  >      \ 

f  >        '  \   \ 


1 


J 


^n 


i'ca. 


5pHlJ\&|.i!!!°5i2-W- t1 


r -*■ 


s^ 


V 


"^ 


"7xS 


lyt^ 


IBMIHGHj 

Jljrilli-l    ■" 


^-■<ai^riJT^>; 


lu/Jr 


>.ur.w/^: 

1   a,\     . 


if  /?  ^         0OM9LEBCIAL 


,/ 


A 


R?orCEaRsT\ 


/f^ 


UJnJILKKUlAli  AND  INDUSTRIAL  MAP\ 

\  OF  THE 

\  UNIJED  STATES 

^y            220  MILE8  TO  ONE  INCH. 
^-^  SCALE  OF  MILES    


»        igo 


200 

„    ,    .                      explanation: 
Capitals,. : 

Capitals  &  La.rt(est  Cities, 

liarge&t  Citios, — , _ _.. 

Towns  with  over  25,000  pop., -  -- 

Towns  between  10,000  &.  2a,000  pop.,.. 


3U0 


^A^  \  liargest  Citios, — , _ 9 

y^  \  Towns  with  over  25,000  pop., -— OAKLAND  « 

^y  \  Towns  between  10,000  A  2a,000  pop., „  Sui  Diego  o 

'  \  Towns  between  5,000  &  10,000  pop.,1 Santa  Cruz  * 

X  k.COj\  Towns  uader  5,000  pop,, , Eureka* , 

S3  ^n,tt^  \  Kailroads,  Main  Trunk  Lines, MiBaaMH^^B^HB 

>r^  \  Jlailroads,  Minor  Trunk  Lines, -•- ,  

\  ?/  \  Kavigable  Rivers, ^  ,     ,, 

■-.,,   *  ^  V^  \  Canals, J^^m^^,mmm^ 


92 


ADVANCED   GEOGRAPHY. 


DOMINION  OF  CANADA, 

AND  NEWFOUNDLAND. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


SURFACE. 

557.  Hastern  Canada. — An  almost  unbroken  water-line  of 
lakes  and  rivers  reaching  southeast  through  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  to  Lake  Superior,  sep- 
arates eastern  from  western  Canada.  A  large,  shallow  sea,  called 
Hudson  Bay,  occupies  the  center  of  the  eastern  division,  and 
receives,  through  short,  rapid  rivers,  most  of  its  drainage. 

558.  Western  Canada. — That  portion  of  Canada  lying  west 
of  the  almost  straight  chain  of  large  lakes  which  reaches  from  the 
Arctic  Circle  to  Lake  Superior,  is  verj'  much  j-ounger,  geologically, 
than  the  eastern  division.  Along  its  southern  boundary  and 
northward  to  beyond  the  Saskatchewan,  the  country-  between  the 
lake-chain  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  an  undulating  prairie-plain. 
Farther  north  the  country  is  more  uneven  and  forest-covered  as  far 
as  the  70th  parallel. 

The  highest  part  of  the  plateau  west  of  this  region  is  along 
the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  some  of  the  glacier- 
bearing  peaks  are  over  13,000  feet  in  height.  Between  the  eastern 
range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascade  or  Coast  Range 


are  several  broken  gold-bearing  ranges.  Very  crooked  rivers,  often 
rising  in  deep,  narrow,  glacier-formed  lakes,  drain  this  rugged 
region  into  the  Pacific. 

The  coast  is  bordered  with  innumerable  islands  and  cut  by 
numerous  deep  and  narrow  inlets.  These,  like  the  fiords  of 
Norway,  are  submerged  valleys,  which  were  cut  out  by  ancient 
glaciers.  The  islands  are  evidently  the  higher  plateaus  and  peaks 
of  a  range  of  mountains  now  partly  submerged. 

CI,IMATS. 

559.  Southeastern  Provinces  and  Ontario. — The  high 
latitude  of  Canada  makes  the  climate  one  of  extremes  in  tem- 
perature, except  where  large  bodies  of  water  moderate  the  summer 
heat  and  the  winter  cold.  The  southeastern  pro\'inces,  lying  in 
the  latitude  of  Minnesota  and  the  New  England  States,  have  a 
severe  climate;  but  the  peninsula  between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake 
Erie  has  a  climate  in  which  peaches  and  grapes  grow  well. 

560.  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island. — ^The  equable 
climate  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island  is  too  cool  for 
peaches  and  grapes,  but  apples  grow  to  perfection. 


£  w 


n  " 

rr'  fa 


»  n 

o  per  r* 

rp    Jt  » 

Pi    0 


s° 


a.  f 


94 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


561.  British  Columbia. —  British  Columbia  has  the  climate 
peculiar  to  tlie  Pacific  Slope,  but  it  is  cooler  and  more  moist  than 
the  Pacific  States.  The  contrast  in  climate  between  this  province 
of  the  western  coast,  and  the  northeast  territorj'  of  the  Labrador 
Peninsula,  lying  in  the  same  latitude,  is  very  gfreat.  Nevertheless, 
the  winter  in  northwestern  British  Columbia  would  seem  very 
dark  and  cold  to  a  Califomian.  On  Christmas  day  the  sun  is  in 
sight  only  about  five  hours,  and  at  noon  it  is  less  than  7°  above 
the  southern  horizon.  The  temperature  may  be  as  low  as  50° 
below  zero. 

562.  Effect  of  "Chinook"  Winds.— Warm  "Chinook"  winds, 
blowing  from  the  Pacific,  through  low  passes  in  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, mitigate  the  severity  of  winters  in  the  interior,  particularly  in 
Athabasca,  where  also  the  low  altitude  is  an  advantage.  There 
the  long  summer  days,  separated  by  nights  only  seven  or  eight 
hours  in  length,  enable  the  farmers  in  Peace  River  Valley  to  raise 
good  crops  of  wheat  and  other  grains.  Wheat  is  cultivated  as 
far  north  even  as  Fort  Laird,  in  the  northeast  part  of  British 
Columbia. 

NATIVE  VEGETATION  AND  ANIMAI^S. 

563.  Forests.  —  Canada,  .south  of  the  60th  parallel,  is  largely 
forest-covered.  The  only  large,  nearly  treeless  areas  are  found  in 
the  provinces  of  Manitoba,  Assiniboia,  and  Saskatchewan,  and  the 
northwest  slope  of  the  Labrador  Peninsula. 

564.  Fur-Bearing  Animals  and  Game  are  abundant.  Until 
within  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  centurj',  furs  formed  the 
only  commercial  product  of  all  Canada  north  and  west  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  they  are  now  an  important  product.  Moose,  elk,  and 
deer  are  yet  common  in  the  forests;  but  the  countless  herds  of 
bison — generally  called  buffalo — which  once  fed  upon  the  western 
prairies  have  all  been  destroyed.  Fish  abound  in  the  rivers  and 
lakes,  as  well  as  along  the  sea-coasts. 

POLITICAL    DESCRIPTION. 

COMMERCIAI,  FACIhlTinS. 

565.  Water-Ways. — Canada  has  been 'called  "The  Land  of 
Water-ways."  For  many  years  trappers  and  fur-traders  have 
traversed  the  forest  region  south  and  west  of  Hudson  Bay  in  birch- 
bark  canoes,  which  they  occasionally  carried  over  short  portages.* 

On  the  larger  streams  canals  at  the  portages  now  enable  boats, 
often  of  large  size,  to  pass.  Boats  drawing  ten  feet  of  water  can 
go  from  any  port  on  the  Great  Lakes  to  any  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
or  sea-coast  cities.  The  Saskatchewan  is  navigable  from  its  rapids, 
near  Lake  Winnipeg,  to  Edmunton,  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Steamers  of  light  draught  can  go  from  Winnipeg  up 
the  Red  River  of  the  North  to  towns  in  Minnesota  and  Dakota. 
Most  of  the  rivers  of  the  Mackenzie  Basin  are  navigable. 

The  St.  Lawrence  and  most  of  the  other  water-ways  are  closed 
by  ice  about  half  the  year. 

566.  Railways. — In  the  older  provinces  are  numerous  short, 
railways,    and    a    continuous  line,  called  the    Canadian    Pacific, 
extends   from    Halifax,  on   the  Atlantic,  to  Vancouver,  on  the 
Pacific. 

PROVINCES. 

567.  How  Divided. — Canada  is  divided  into  provinces,  districts, 
and  territories.     The   provinces   correspond   very   nearly   to   our 

1.  The  Blgni  of  l)ix8lness  bouses  are  usually  double,  one  in  French  and  one  in  English. 
The  farms,  after  the  plan  of  those  in  France,  are  generally  long  strips  of  land  having  a 
narrow  frontage  on  some  river,  along  whose  banks  the  houses  are  built.  These,  necessa- 
rily close  together,  present  the  appearance  of  a  straggling  village,  of  which  the  river  is  the 


States.    They  are  divided  into  counties,  and  these  into  townships, 
or  parishes. 

568.  Government. — The  chief  executive  ofiicer,  called  the 
Governor-General,  is  appointed  by  the  British  Government.  He 
appoints  the  members  of  the  Senate,  who  hold  office  for  life.  Rep- 
resentatives elected  by  the  people  of  the  provinces  form  the  House 
of  Commons,  which,  with  the  Senate  and  the  Governor-General, 
constitute  the  Dominion  Parliament. 

569.  Nova  Scotia. — This  peninsula  and  Cape  Breton (brtt'un) 
Island  form  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia,  which  is  about  as  large 
as  the  Central  Valley  of  California,  and  similar  in  shape.  The 
north  coast  is  devoted  to  agriculture,  coal-mining,  and  iron  pro- 
duction; the  south  coast  to  fishing,  and,  in  a  small  way,  to  gold- 
mining.  Ship-building  and  lumbering  are  important  industries. 
The  apples  of  Annapolis  Valley,  in  the  southwest,  are  unexcelled. 

570.  New  Brunswick. — This  province  is  a  fourth  larger  than 
Nova  Scotia.  Forest  products  form  five  sevenths  of  the  value  of 
all  exports.  Coal,  gypsum,  grindstones,  and  fish  are  also  exported. 
St.  Johns,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  boasts  a  harbor  that  is  never 
blocked  with  ice. 

571.  Prince  Edward  Island  has  an  area  of  but  little  more 
than  2,000  square  miles,  but  it  is  nearly  all  arable.  The  chief 
crop  is  potatoes.     Oysters  are  exported. 

572.  The  Province  of  Quebec  is  larger  than  California,  with 
about  an  equal  population.  Four  fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
descendants  of  the  French  colonists  who  began  to  settle  the  St. 
Lawrence  Valley  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  French 
language  is  mostly  used  by  the  people.' 

Lumbering  is  the  chief  commercial  industry.  The  numerous 
streams  running  into  the  St.  Lawrence  afford  a  ready  means  for 
the  transportation  of  forest  products.  South  of  the  great  river 
there  is  considerable  dairy  farming. 

573.  Ontario. — The  extent  of  this  province  from  north  to  south 
slightly  exceeds  that  of  California,  but  its  greater  longitude  gives 
it  an  area  nearly  a  third  larger.  North  of  Lake  Superior  and  the 
head- waters  of  the  Ottawa  it  is  thinly  populated,  but  the  remain- 
der of  the  province  contains  more  than  one  third  of  the  entire 
population  of  Canada.  Farming  is  the  chief  occupation.  Lum- 
bering and  manufacturing  are  important  industries.  Considerable 
petroleum  is  obtained  from  an  oil  district  south  of  Lake  Huron. 
Mines  of  copper,  nickel,  and  silver,  near  Lake  Superior,  are  worked. 

574.  Manitoba. — The  drainage  of  this  province  is  chiefly  into 
Hudson  Bay,  through  the  Nelson  and  Albany  rivers.  The  western 
half  lies  within  the  great  wheat  region,  and  is  increasing  rapidly 
in  population. 

575.  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan,  and  Athabasca  have  large 
areas  of  good  wheat  land,  and  people  from  Europe,  eastern  Canada, 
and  the  United  States  are  rapidly  settling  those  territories.  Alberta 
has  some  good  stock  ranges.    Wheat  is  raised. 

576.  The  Hudson  Bay  Region  and  the  Northwest  Territory. 
still  produce  furs  only;  but  coal-beds  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Mackenzie  Basin,  and  may  yet  make  that  cheerless  region  a  source 
of  wealth. 

577.  British  Columbia  is  more  than  twice  as  large  as  California, 
which  it  resembles  in  shape.  Lumbering,  coal-mining,  fishing, 
and  (in  the  interior)  gold-mining  are  the  chief  occupations. 

street.    The  counties  between  Quebec  and  Montreal  are  laid  out  so  as  to  run  back  from 
the  river  a  distance  of  over  200  miles,  but  with  a  water-front  often  of  only  12  or  15  miles. 

*  portage:  a  narrow  strip  of  land  over  which  merchandise,  etc.,  is  carried  from  one  navi- 
gable body  of  water  to  another. 


MEXICO,   CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES. 


95 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 

578.  This  Island,  which  has  a  government  separate  from 
Canada,  is  about  one  fourth  as  large  as  California.  Its  rugged 
coast  is  cut  by  numerous  deep,  fiord-like  bays.  Narrow  lakes 
probably  form  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  area  of  the  island. 
The  gulf  coast  is  well  wooded.  Some  of  the  peaks  of  the  interior 
are  2,000  feet  high.  Herds  of  caribou,  or  American  reindeer,  find 
abundant  pasturage  in  the  uninhabited  interior.  Fishing  is  the 
chief  employment.  There  are  large  beds  of  gypsum.  Labrador 
Territory  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfoundland.  The  white 
inhabitants  (less  than  3,000)  live  mostly  along  the  south  coast. 
A  few  Indians  and  Eskimos  live  in  the  north  part.  All  are 
fishermen. 

579.  Chief  Cities. — Montreal,  the  metropolis  of  Canada,  has 
a  population  of  over  200,000.  No  other  city  in  America  has  such 
massive  wharves,  piers,  and  river  embankments.  These  were  built 
to  resist  the  ice-gorges.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  a  gray 
lime-stone. 

Toronto,  the  capital  of  Ontario,  ranks  next  to  Montreal  in 
population  and  commercial  importance. 

Quebec  City,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  was 
founded  by  Champlain  in  1608.  It  ranks  third  in  commercial 
importance  among  the  cities  of  Canada.  The  leather  manufactures 
equal  all  the  others  in  value. 

Ottawa,  the  Dominion  capital,  a  city  about  as  large  as  Sacra- 
mento, manufactures  more  lumber  than  any  other  Canadian  city. 
The  government  buildings  are  not  surpassed  in  America. 

Hamilton,  London,  and  Kingston  are  important  cities.  Winni- 
peg, in  1870,  had  250  inhabitants;  in  1890,  35,000. 

Victoria  has  a  population  of  about  15,000.  Vancouver  is  the 
western  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 


QUESTIONS. 

Surface.— What  water-line  separates  eastern  from  western  Canada?  What 
is  the  age  of  eastern  Canada  compared  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  conti- 
nent?    Into  what  is  that  part  of  the  continent  mostly  drained? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  waters  that  divide  eastern  from  western  Canada?  Describe  the  western 
plateau  region.  How  is  it  drained?  What  is  the  character  of  the  Pacific 
coast-line? 

Climate. — Describe  the  climate  in  the  southeast.  Why  do  not  peaches 
and  grapes  grow  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island?  To  what  fruit 
is  the  climate  there  adapted?  What  difference  between  the  coast  climate  of 
British  Columbia  and  that  of  Labrador?  Why?  What  softens  the  climate 
in  Athabasca?    How  far  north  is  wheat  raised  successfully? 

Native  Vegetation  and  Animals. — Where  are  forests  found?  Where  the 
treeless  plains?  What  is  said  of  fur-bearing  animals?  What  game  is  men- 
tioned?   What  is  said  of  it?    What  of  fish? 

Commercial  Facilities. —  How  do  trappers  and  fur-traders  travel  in  the 
region  of  their  operations?  What  facilities  are  afforded  by  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence?  Navigability  of  the  Saskatchewan?  Red  River  of 
the  North?  Rjvers  of  the  Mackenzie  Basin?  How  is  water  travel  aflected 
by  the  winters?     Describe  the  railways. 

Political  Divisions. — Into  what  political  divisions  is  Canada  divided? 
Compare  each  of  these  divisions  with  the  political  divisions  of  the  United 
States.  Describe  the  government.  Of  Nova  Scotia  tell:  size;  shape;  pro- 
ductions; manufactures.  Of  New  Brunswick  tell:  size;  products;  exports. 
Same  of  Prince  Edward  Island.  Of  Quebec  tell:  size;  character  of  popu- 
lation; language  spoken;  chief  industry;  means  of  transportation;  dairying. 
Of  Ontario  tell:  size;  population;  chief  occupation;  other  important  indus- 
tries; mineral  resources.  What  provinces  are  celebrated  for  the  production 
of  wheat?  What  of  Alberta?  Hudson  Bay  region  and  Northwest  Territory? 
Of  British  Columbia  tell:  size;  shape;  chief  occupations.  Of  Newfoundland 
tell:  size;  surface;  game;  fish;  minerals;  government.  What  of  Labrador? 
Chief  Cities. — Montreal:  population;  in  what  it  has  first  rank  in  America. 
Rank  of  Toronto.  Quebec:  commercial  importance;  leather.  Ottawa: 
population;  lumber  industry;  government  buildings.  What  of  Winnipeg? 
Victoria? 


MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND  THE  "WEST  INDIES. 


MEXICO— DESCRIPTION. 

PHYSIC AL  FEATURES. 

580.  Outline. — The  outline  of  Mexico  has  been  compared  to 
that  of  a  cornucopia.  A  depression,  marked  by  the  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Gila  rivers,  separates  the  Mexican  Plateau  from  the  main 
body  of  the  Western  Plateau  of  North  America,  and  very  nearly 
coincides  with  the  northern  boundary.  The  southwestern  coast 
is  entered  near  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  by  the  Gulf  of  California, 
which  separates  a  long,  narrow  peninsula  from  the  mainland.  No 
other  narrow  depressions  below  the  sea-level  penetrate  far  inland; 
but  many  deep  valleys  cut  into  the  plateau  which  forms  the  larger 
part  of  the  surface.  The  Peninsula  of  Yucatan  and  narrow  borders 
along  the  coasts  form  the  lowlands  of  Mexico. 

581.  Mexican  Plateau. — Southward  from  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
Mexican  Plateau  gradually  rises  and  becomes  narrower,  until  near 
the  1 8th  parallel  it  culminates*  in  lofty  mountains,  whose  broad 
valleys  are  7,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Thence  the 
country  slopes  toward  the  Isthmus  of  Te  huan(wan')te  pec,  where 
the  passes  between  the  low  mountains  have  an  elevation  of  only  a 
few  hundred  feet. 

582.  Mountains. — A  chain  of  about  a  dozen  volcanic  peaks 
extends  in  a  nearly  straight  east  and  west  line  across  the  high 
southern  part  of  the  plateau.     One  of  these,  Popocatepetl,  is  over 

1.  The  Aitecs  were  the  native  people  whom  the  Spanish  conquered  in  15JI. 


17,500  feet  high.  Its  crater  is  a  mile  broad  and  over  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  deep.  Jorullo  (hordbryo),  the  most  remarkable  volcano, 
rises  only  1,600  feet  above  the  level  plain,  from  which,  along  with 
several  smaller  cones,  it  arose  in  a  single  day,  in  the  year  1795. 
It  is  now  apparently  extinct,  and  vegetation  clothes  its  sides. 

583.  The  Rivers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Rio  Grande  and 
Colorado,  which  are  only  partly  Mexican,  are  not  navigable 
beyond  the  lowland  borders. 

CLIMATE. 

584.  Moisture. — The  hot,  moist  air  of  the  coast  south  of  the 
Tropic  affords  copious  rains  along  the  middle  heights  of  the 
plateau;  while  in  much  of  the  interior  north  of  the  Tropic  the 
rainfall  is  so  light  that  all  crops  have  to  be  irrigated.  The  winter 
months  are  mostly  rainless  in  Mexico. 

585.  The  Temperature  is  hot  along  the  coasts,  mild  on  the 
plateaus,  and  cold  on  the  high  mountains. 

RESOURCES  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 

586.  Mineral  Resources. — The  silver  mines  of  Mexico  have 
been  the  most  productive  in  the  world.  Three  hundred  and 
fifty  years  of  mining  have  not  exhausted  them.  Gold  mines  were 
worked  by  the  Aztecs'  for  an  unknown  length  of  time  before  the 
discovery  of  America.     Rich  mines  of  mercury  are  worked. 

*  culminates:  reaches  its  highest  point 


MEXICO,   CENTRAL   AMERICA,  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES. 


97 


587.  The  Chief  Food  Products  for  home  consumption 
are  com,  beans,  red  pepper,  sugar-cane,  and  a  great  variety  of 
fruits,  man)'  of  which  are  not  known  in  other  countries.  The 
national  beverage  is  pulque,  the  fermented  juice  of  a  kind  of 
century-plaflt.  A  strong  Hquor,  called  mezquel,  is  obtained  by 
distilling  pulque.  For  export  as  well  as  home  use,  cacao — 
from  the  seeds  of  which  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  made — vanilla, 
and  coffee  are  cultivated.  These,  plants,  except  the  last,  are 
native,  and  were  cultivated  by  the  Aztecs. 

588.  Export  Plants  and  Forest  Products. — Tobacco, 
cotton,  sisal,'  and  indigo  are  raised  for  export  as  well  as  for 
home  consumption.  Mahogany,  rose-wood,  various  dye-woods, 
and  India-rubber  are  forest  products. 

589.  Animal  Products.  —  Cochineal,  a  scale  insect, 
which  subsists  on  a  kind  of  cactus,  is  the  most  notable 
animal  product.     It  is  used   for  scarlet  dyeing,  the 
insect  being  killed  by  plunging  it  in  hot  water,  after 
which  it  is  dried.     Many  cattle,  horses,  and  donkeys 
are  raised. 

THM  PMOPI^B  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

590.  The  Inhabitants  are 
of  mixed  races,  Indian  blood 
predominating.  Only  about 
one  tenth  are  of  pure  Spanish 
descent.  Most  of  the  people 
live  in  adobe  houses.  Their 
chief  food  is  a  kind  of  com- 
cake  and  beans,  cooked  with 
red  pepper.  The  language 
spoken  is  Spanish,  but  the 
majority  are  not  able  to  read  it. 

With   an   area  nearly 
one  fourth  that  of  the 
United  States,  Mexico 
has    a   population    of 
about   10,000,000,  most 
of  it  occupying  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  plateau  re- 
gion, the  seat  of  the  ancient 
Aztec  empire  overthrown 
by  Cortes. 

591.  Government  a 
Religion. — Mexico   is 


republic,  consisting    of   twenty-eight   States 


'and   the  peninsular  territory  of  Lower  California 

I.  ^iBai  is  a  kind  of  century-plant  which  furnishes  a  valuable  fiber  for  cordage. 


The  prevailing  religion  is 
Roman  Catholic. 


592.  Mexico,  the  chief  city  and 

capital,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful,  elevated 

valley,  surrounded  by  mountains  that 

contain  many  fine  lakes,  and  stands  at 

'Mil  an  altitude  of  7,400  feet  above  the  sea.     It  is 

'    "'    encircled  by  walls,  and  the  entrance  is  by  gates, 

to  which  several  highways  lead.    The  houses  are 

built  mostly  of  stone,  one  story  high,  with  flat 

roofs  like  those 
of  Chihuahua. 
The  streets  are 
well  paved  and 
straight.  The 
features  which 
most  attract  the 
stranger  are  the 
great  square,  or 
//rt^'rt,  surround- 
ed by  the  chief 
public  buildings 
and  the  cathe- 
dral. The  man- 
ufactures are 
chiefly  gold  and 
silver  lace,  sil- 
versmiths' work, 
uid  woolens.  Mexico  is  the  terminus  of  all  the  important  railways 
leading  into  the  country.  Its  population  is  less  than  that  of  San 
Francisco. 

593.  The  Chief  Sea-ports  on  the  Pacific  are  Acapultx),  a  coaling 
station  in  the  southwest  for  Pacific. mail  steamers,  and  Guay(gwi')mas, 
on  the  Gulf  of  California.  Vera  Cruz  is  the  metropolis  of  the  gulf 
coast.  Its  trade  is  equal  to  that  of  all  the  other  Mexican  ports  taken 
together.  It  is  situated  on  a  marshy,  fever-breeding  plain,  and  is  often 
visited  by  yellow  fever.  Seen  from  the  sea,  it  presents  an  imposing 
appearance,  and  is  commanded  by  a  strong  fortress  built  upon  an 
island  which  lies  about  half  a  mile  from  the  mainland.  The  principal 
railroad  of  the  country  connects  it  with  the  City  of  Mexico. 


ISTHHIS   OF   PANAMA  l 
TZ Zi — ? >ua  w  uitii    m 


ft.n.lkmii^li«t.K'< 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


99 


QUESTIONS. 

Physical  Features. — Describe  the  outline  of  Mexico.  Where  are  its  low- 
lands?   Where  are  the  highlands?     What  is  said  of  its  rivers? 

Climate. — What  is  said  of  moisture?    Of  temperature? 

Resources  and  Productions. — What  mineral  resources  of  Mexico  have 
been  developed?  Of  these,  which  is  the  most  valuable?  What  are  the 
undeveloped  mineral  resources? 

What  are  the  food  and  drink  products  for  home  use?  For  export?  Name 
the  agricultural  exports.     The  forest  exports.     The  animal  resources. 

The  People  and  Government. — Races;  language;  extent  of  population; 
most  populous  region;  government;  religion. 

Cities. — What  of  Mexico?    Acapulco?    Guaymas?    Vera  Cruz? 

CENTRAL    AMERICA— DESCRIPTION. 

594.  The  Physical  Characteristics  of  Central  America  are 
similar  to  those  of  Mexico,  but  the  plateaus  and  mountains  are 
lower,  volcanoes  are  more  numerous,  and  there  is  a  greater  pro- 
portional area  of  lowland. 

595.  The  Climate,  because  of  less  elevation  and  lower  latitude, 
is  hotter  and  more  moist  than  that  of  Mexico. 

596.  The  Resources  are  similar  but  less  developed.  More 
rice,  bananas,  coffee,  and  indigo  are  produced. 

597.  The  People  are  less  energetic  and  more  ignorant.  The 
proportion  of  negroes  and  Indians  is  greater. 

598.  Government. — With  the  exception  of  Balize',  which  is 
controlled  by  the  British,  the  States  are  nominally  independent 
republics.     Rebellions  and  interstate  wars  are  frequent. 

599.  A  Ship  Canal,  which,  with  the  aid  of  Lake  Nicaragua 
and  its  .outlet,  will  enable  the  largest  vessels  to  cross  the  isthmus, 
is  now  in  process  of  construction. 

^A^EST   INDIES— DESCRIPTION. 

600.  Physical  Features. — In  the  West  Indies  the  mountain- 
systems  of  the  two  American  continents  are  blended. 

Cuba,  northern  Haiti,  and  Puerto  Rico  are  an  extension  from 
Cape  Catoche  of  the  elevated  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  the  line  of 
elevation,  in  its  progress,  three  times  dipping  beneath  the  sea. 

Another  line  of  elevation  extends  northeast  from  Cape  Gracios 
a  Dios  through  submarine  banks,  the  island  of  Ja  ma^''ca,  and  the 
southwestern  peninsula  of  Haiti,  joining  the  Yucatan  spur  in 
Puerto  Rico.  Still  a  third  line  from  the  peninsula  of  Florida 
extends  southeast  to  Haiti  through  the  Bahama  Islands,  which 
constitute  its  highest  peaks. 


Beyond  Puerto  Rico  these  three  lines  of  elevation  meet  a  fourth 
line  that  extends  northward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  The 
five  hundred  peaks  of  this  line  constitute  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

601.  Climate. — The  tropical  climate  of  the  West  Indies  is,  like 
all  insular  climates,  moderated  by  the  ocean.  During  the  wet 
season,  which  lasts  from  May  to  October,  there  are  severe  c\-clones. 

602.  Productions.  —  Sugar-cane  and  tobacco  are  the  chief 
sources  of  commercial  products. 

603.  Inhabitants. — Columbus  found  most  of  these  islands 
densely  populated,  but  the  natives  were  gradually  exterminated 
by  the  Spanisl;!  colonists,  who  enslaved  them.  Negro  slaves  were 
brought  from  Africa  in  great  numbers,  and  the  free  descendants  of 
these  Africans  now  form  the  greater  part  of  the  population. 

604.  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico  are  yet  under  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment. Their  population  of  near  1,500,000  is  about  two  thirds  of 
Spanish  descent.  Havana,  the  largest  city  of  the  West  Indies,  has 
over  200,000  inhabitants.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world,  and  its  commerce  exceeds  that  of  all  the  other  West  Indian 
ports  taken  together. 

605.  Jamaica  is  under  British  rule.  Its  300,000  people  are 
mostly  negroes.     Rum  and  allspice  are  exported. 

606.  The  Island  of  Haiti. — The  first  permanent  colony  in 
America  was  established  on  this  island  by  Columbus.  The  western 
third  of  the  island  is  now  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  whose  population 
(700,000),  mostly  of  negro  descent,  is  four  times  as  great  as  that  of 
the  adjoining  Republic  of  San  Domingo.  These  republics,  partic- 
ularly the  former,  are  often  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 

607.  The  Bahama  Islands  belong  to  the  Enghsh.  They 
export  citrus  fruits,  pineapples,  sponges,  and  salt.  Watling  Island 
was  probably  the'  first  land  discovered  by  Columbus. 

608.  The  Lesser  Antilles  are  some  of  them  very  populous. 
Barbadoes  supports  a  population  of  180,000  on  its  area  of  166 
square  miles.     Martinique  is  also  very  populous. 

QUESTIONS. 

Central  America. — Physical  characteristics;  climate;  resources;  people; 
government. 

West  Indies. — What  three  mountain-systems  are  blended  in  these  islands? 
Describe  the  direction  taken  by  each  of  these  mountain-systems  in  forming 
the  West  Indies.  Describe  the  climate.  Productions  of  commerce.  Inhab- 
itants. Which  islands  are  under  Spanish  rule?  English  rule?  Which  are 
independent?    What  two  republics  in  Haiti? 


MAP    QUESTIONS   ON    SOUTH    AMERICA. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 


Position. — [See  p.  6.]  In  which  hemisphere  is  South  America,  Eastern 
or  Western?  Is  most  of  it  in  the  Northern  or  Southern  Hemisphere?  What 
part  of  it  is  in  our  hemisphere?  What  direction  is  it  from  North  America? 
From  Africa?  From  Australia?  What  oceans  touch  South  America?  Which 
is  the  largest?  The  smallest?  Which  separates  it  from  Australia?  From 
Africa?  What  isthmus  connects  South  America  and  North  America?  Which 
extends  farther  from  the  Equator,  North  America  or  South  America? 

[See  Political  Map  of  South  America.]  In  what  zones  is  South  America? 
What  part  of  it  is  crossed  by  the  Equator?  By  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn?  In 
which  zone  does  most  of  it  lie?  Give  its  northern  extreme  of  latitude;  its 
southern.  Its  eastern  extreme  of  longitude;  its  western.  Compare  it  with 
North  America  in  zonal  position;  in  extremes  of  longitude;  in  extremes 
of  latitude. 

Shape. — What  is  the  shape  of  South  America?  In  which  direction  is  it 
longest?    In  what  longitude  is  it  longest?    In  what   latitude  is  it  widest? 


Compare  it  with  North  America  in  shape;  in  greatest  length,  in  degrees;  in 
greatest  width,  in  degrees. 

Relief. — What  great  mountain-range  in  the  west?  What  three  ranges  in 
the  northeast?  Four  in  the  eastern  part?  One  in  the  interior?  Compare 
the  trend  of  each  of  the  above  ranges  with  that  of  the  nearest  coast.  Com- 
pare the  trend  of  each  with  that  of  some  mountain-range  in  North  America. 
Compare  the  Andes  with  the  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America  in  regard 
to  length;  in  regard  to  nearness  to  the  sea.  Begin  at  the  north  and  name  in 
order,  going  southerly,  twelve  peaks  of  the  Andes.  Which  of  these  are 
volcanoes?.  Compare  the  Andes  with  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  regard  to 
number  of  volcanoes. 

[See  Relief  Map  of  South  America.]  Is  the  interior  of  South  America  a 
mountainous  or  a  plain  region?  The  western  border?  The  eastern  border? 
Which  mountain-system  is  the  longer,  that  on  the  eastern  border  or  that  on 
the  western  border?    Which  is  the  higher?    Which  is  nearer  the  coast? 


100 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


[See  Physical  Map.]  Which  half  of  the  map  shows  more  land  above  5,000 
feet,  the  eastern  or  the  western?  Which  more  land  below  800  feet?  On  which 
coast  is  the  widest  strip  of  ocean  less  than  1,000  feet  deep?  What  highland- 
system  in  the  west?  In  the  east?  Which  is  longer?  Wider?  Higher? 
Nearer  to  the  sea?  Which  is  adjacent  to  the  largest  ocean?  Which  has 
more  volcanoes?    On  which  are  the  land  slopes  steeper?    On  which  side  of 


South  America  is  the  longer  slope,  the  eastern  or  the  western?  On  which 
of  these  slopes  are  the  more  rivers?  In  what  part  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
continent  do  the  rivers  flow  southerly  to  the  ocean?  Northerly?  Easterly? 
Are  the  coast  islands  of  South  America  in  deep  or  shallow  sea?  Would  there 
be  much  or  little  increase  of  the  continent  if  an  elevation  of  1,000  feet  should 
occur?    Compare  South  America  with  North  America  in  this  respect. 

Rivers. — [See  Political  Map  of  South  America.]  What  river  of  South 
America  flows  into  the  Caribbean  Sea?  What  mountains  bound  its  basin? 
What  great  river  flows  easterly  into  the  Atlantic?  Northeasterly?  South- 
erly? Which  of  these  is  longest?  Which  has  the  largest  basin?  Which  has 
the  most  tributaries?  What  highlands  inclose  the  Basin  of  the  Orinoco? 
Of  the  Amazon?  Of  the  La  Pla'ta?  Where  is  the  San  Francisco  River?  The 
Tocantins?  Name  six  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  from  the  north.  Eight 
from  the  south.  What  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  rise  in  the  high  Andes? 
Which  of  these  rise  nearest  the  Pacific  coast?  About  how  far  from  the  coast? 
Is  the  divide  between  the  Amazon  Basin  and  that  of  the  Orinoco  highland 
or  lowland?  Between  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  the  La  Plata?  What 
river  connects  the  Orinoco  and  the  Ri'o  Ne'gro?  What  two  rivers  unite  to 
form  the  La  Plata?  Name  the  tributaries  of  the  Par  a  guay'  that  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes.  In  the  Brazilian  Mountains.  What  river  of  South 
America  has  a  delta?  What  two  have  estuary  mouths?  Find  the  largest 
river  in  Guiana.  Estimate  its  length.  Compare  it  in  length  with  the  Sac- 
ramento River  of  California.  Which  do  you  think  flows  the  more  water? 
[See  Rain  Map.]     What  rivers  in  South  America  have  interior  drainage. 

Lakes. — Are  there  many  or  few  lakes  in  South  America?  Compare  it 
with  North  America  in  this  respect.  Where  is  Lake  Maraeay'bo?  Lake 
Ti  ti  ca'ca?    Which  is  situated  in  highlands?    In  lowlands? 


Coast-Line. — Is  the  coast-line  of  South  America  regular  or  irregular? 
Compare  it  with  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  in  this  respect;  with 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America.  Beginning  at  the  north  and  going 
southerly,  name  in  order  and  locate  all  the  capes  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America;  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  All  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  coast; 
of  the  Atlantic  coast.  All  the  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  of  the  Pacific  coast;  of 
the  Atlantic  coast.  What  island  forms  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America?  What  cape?  What  cape  forms  the  northern  extremity?  The 
eastern?  What  island  in  the  estuary  of  the  Amazon?  Where  are  the  Falk- 
land Islands?     The  Ga  la  pa'gos  Islands?    Ju'an  Fer  nan'dSg? 

Miscellaneous. — Find  a  large  island  in  the  Araguay  River.  How  long  is 
it  ?  Do  you  think  it  is  hilly  or  level?  What  kind  of  country  along  the 
Parana  near  its  mouth? 

Take  up  next,  the  map  exercises  on  South  America  in  connection  with: 
(i)  The  Map  of  Ocean-Currents,  p.  27.     (2)  The  Maps  of  Thermal  Zones, 
p.  22.     (3)  The  Maps  of  Barometric  Pressure,  p.  25.     (4)  The  Map  of  Rain- 
fall, p.  26. 

Exercises  and  Problems. — Model  the  Andes  in  sand.  Make  a  sketch-map 
of  the  mountain-systems  of  South  America;  of  the  Orinoco  River-System; 
of  the  Amazon  System;  of  the  La  Plata  System. 

Model  South  America  in  sand,  to  show  mountain-systems  and  drainage- 
systems.  Make  a  sketch-map  of  South  America,  showing  mountain-systems, 
river-systems,  and  outline.  Make  a  profile  section  of  South  America  in 
latitude  14°  north.     In  longitude  65°  west. 

Using  the  scale  of  miles,  determine  the  distance  from  Cape  St.  Roque  to 
Cape  Horn,  and  from  Cape  St.  Roque  to  Point  Gallinas  (gal  ye'nas).  Com- 
pute the  area  of  the  right-angled  triangle  thus  shown  to  find  the  approxi- 
mate area  of  South  America. 

Omit  the  following  until  taking  up  Political  South  America,  p.  103: 
Location  of  Countries. — What  countries  have  no  sea-coast?    Which  has 
the  most  in  proportion  to  its  size?     Name  the  countries  north  of  the  Equa- 
tor; those  crossed  by  the  Equator.    How  much  of  Bolivia  is  in  the  Basin  of 
the  Amazon? 


Cities. — Give  the  location  of  the  capital  cities.  What  city  in  North 
America  is  due  north  of  Bo  go  tii'?  How  long  are  the  days  in  Qui(ke)'to? 
In  what  town  do  they  have  the  longest  days?  What  points  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  are  connected  by  railway?  With  what  city  of  the  Pacific  coast 
is  Buenos  Ayres  connected  by  railway? 


>»•,»-  »■», 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


lai 


It 


\L  L.;\i\LiLrj 


lUiVT. 


LLA  MAS. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


FCRossmc  A  RiVEiyy 


ic  II 


a^ 


FLOODED  FORESTiC 


iNTHLAMAK 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION. 

609.  Comparison  with  North  America. — South  America  has  its  mountain-axes 
similar  in  position  and  direction  to  those  of  North  America,  and  it  consequently 
resembles  that  continent  in  shape;  but  it  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  is  very  differently 
situated  as  to  zones. 

PRIMARY  HIGHLAND-SYSTEM. 

610.  The  Andes. — The  predominant  mountain-axis  is  the  Andean  System, 
which  skirts  the  Pacific  coast  from  Panama  to  Cape  Horn,  and  at  the  south 
consists,  in  part,  of  a  chain  of  coast  islands  terminating  in  T£r'ra  del 
Fue(fwa')go.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  System  of  North 
America;  but  it  is  much  higher  and  narrower,  consisting  of  but  two  sets  of 
parallel  ranges. 

611.  Greatest  Width  and  Elevation  of  the  Andes. — Between  the 
Equator  and  latitude  25°  south,  the  system  attains  its  greatest  development 
in  width  and  elevation.  Numerous  peaks  from  15,000  to  23,000  feet  inclose 
the  plateaus  of  Quito  (6,500  to  10,000  feet)  and  Bolivia  (13,000  feet);  the 
latter  second  only  to  the  Plateau  of  Tib'et,  in  Asia  (15,000  feet),  in  point  of 
elevation.' 

612.  Active  Volcanoes  of  the  Andes. — The  Andes  contain  more  active 
volcanoes  than  any  other  continental  mountain-system  in  the  world,  and 
throughout  much  of  their  extent  earthquakes  are  both  frequent  and  violent. 
Both  slopes  of  this  lofty  system  are  very  steep,  that  toward  the  sea  being 

the  more  abrupt,  and  continued  beneath  the  adjacent  ocean. 

The  Andes  are  comparatively  young  mountains,  as  shown  by  their  nearness  to  the  ocean,  their 
great  height,  their  numerous  volcanoes,  and  the  frequency  and  violence  of  earthquake  action.  The 
western  coast  of  South  America  is  undergoing  elevation  at  present. 

SECONDARY  HIGHLAND-SYSTEMS. 

613.  The  Brazilian  Plateau  and  the  Plateau  of  Guiana  constitute  the  two  secondary 
highland-systems  in  South  America.  The  former  has  a  general  elevation 
of  about  2,500  feet,  with  a  few  peaks  rising  to  8,000  feet.  It  corresponds 
to  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  consisting,  like  them,  of  numerous  ranges 
parallel  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  latter  corresponds  in  position  to  The 
Height  of  Land,  and  is  smaller,  but  higher,  than  the  Brazilian  Plateau. 

LOWLANDS. 

614.  Great  Central  Plain. — As  in  North  America,  there  is  a  great 
central  plain  extending  the  length  of  the  continent.  It  is  divided  by  low 
swells  of  land  into  three  parts — the  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  of  the  Amazon, 
and  of  the  La  Plata. 

615.  Coast  Lowlands. — The  mountain-systems  of  South  America  lie 


ISTREET  IN  LIMA. 


g 

// 

4.1,- ■■ 

Ik  >    >.- 

FUFCIANS. 


iS^ 


so  near  the  sea  that  there  are  uo  coa.-jL  lowlands  of  importance,  excepting  at  the  mouths  of  the  great  rivers. 

1.  Upon  tbls  plateau  are  the  highest  lake  (Titicaca)  and  the  highest  city  (Potosi)  to  the  world. 


ro2 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


DRAINAGE. 

616.  The  Great  Continental  Divide  is  the  Andes  Mountains. 
The  western  slope  is  very  narrow  and  steep.  The  eastern  slope 
comprises  five  sixths  of  the  continent,  and  is  divided  by  the  plateaus 
of  Brazil  and  Guiana  into  three  well-defined  river-basins:  The 
Orinoco  Drainage-Basin,  corresponding  in  position  to  the  Mackenzie 
Basin  in  North  America;  the  Basin  of  the  La  Plata,  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  the  Mississippi;  the'  Amazon  Basin,  corresponding 
to  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence.' 

61 7.  The  Amazon. — The  Amazon  System  is  the  largest  river- 
system  in  the  world,  having  50,000  miles  of  navigable  waters,  and 
draining  about  2,000,000  square  miles  of  area.  The  Amazon  River 
is  nearly  4,000  miles  long  and  150  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.'  As 
its  head-waters  in  the  lofty  Andes  lie  in  regions  of  excessive  rain- 
fall, the  lower  course  is  subject  to  great  overflows,  that  inundate 
a  region  of  forest  swamps  1,000  miles  long  and  200  mileg  wide. 
Due  to  its  sluggish  current,  most  of  its  detritus  is  deposited  in 
the  river-bed;  and  the  river-channel  consequently  contains  numer- 
ous islands. 

618.  Coast  Drainage. — The  San  Francisco,  east  of  the  Brazilian 
divide,  and  the  Magdalena  are  the  only  coast  rivers  of  importance. 

619.  Interior  Drainage. —  In  the  Bolivian  Plateau  and  the 
Argentine  Plains  are  nearly  rainless  regions  of  interior  drainage. 

620.  Lakes. — The  only  lakes  of  importance  in  South  America 
are  lakes  Maracaybo  and  Titicaca — the  latter  noted  for  its  great 
elevation. 

COAST-I,INB. 

-  621.  Coast  Islands  and  Capes. — The  coast  of  South  America 
is  even  less  broken  than  the  western  coast  of  North  America. 
Its  few  coast  islands  are  either  portions  of  its  mountain-systems, 
or  else  river-mouth  formations.  The  few  islands  ofi"  shore  in  the 
Pacific  are  volcanic  peaks  rising  from  the  deep  ocean.  The  few 
important  capes  are  generally  the  extremities  of  mountain-systems. 

622.  Gulfs  and  Bays. — There  are  no  large  gulfs  or  bays;  but 
the  estuary  mouths  of  the  Amazon  and  the  La  Plata  are  the 
remains  of  great  gulfs  corresponding  to  the  gulfs  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  Mexico. 

CI^IMATM  AND  VMGBTATION. 

623.  Effect  of  Ocean-Currents. — The  eastern  coast  of  South 
America  is  washed  by  branches  of  the  warm  South  Equatorial 
Current,  while  the  western  coast  is  cooled  as  far  north  as  the 
Tropic  by  the  Peruvian  Current  from  the  Antarctic. 

624.  Effect  of  Trade-Winds. — The  moisture-laden  trade- 
winds  prevail  with  great  constancy  in  tropical  South  America; 
and  as  these  winds  are  lifted  to  cooler  altitudes  by  the  eastern 
highlands,  the  Amazon  Basin  receives  abundant  rainfall,  and  is 
covered  throughout  with  dense  forests,  called  selvas.  The  lofty 
Andes  wholly  intercept  these  winds  and  cause  excessive  rainfall 
upon  their  eastern  slopes,  while  the  western  slope  for  nearly  2,000 
miles  is  almost  rainless  and  barren. 

625.  Seasons. — East  of  the  Andes  the  seasons  in  tropical  lati- 
tudes are  two — the  wet  and  dry.  The  rainy  season  is  at  its  height 
in  Julj'  in  the  Orinoco  Basin,  and  in  January  on  the  Amazon. 
The  "dry"  season  on  the  Amazon  is  short,  and  long  on  the 
Orinoco. 

1.  Tho  rich  grassy  plains  of  the  Orinoco  contrast  strongly  with  the  Arctic  barrenness  of 
the  Mackenzie  Basin;  and  the  dense  tropical  forests  of  the  Amazon  Basin,  with  their 
jungles  of  interlacing  ll  a'nas,*  their  bright-pluraaged  birds,  their  monkeys  and  other 
tropical  animals,  are  in  equal  contrast  with  the  Arctic  winters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin. 
The  basins  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  La  Plata  are  in  like  latitudes,  but  their  sources  and 


During  the  dry  season  the  country  of  the  Orinoco   Basin  is 
barren;  but  during  the  rainy  season  the  plains,  called  llanos,  are  ' 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  grasses. 

626.  Chile  and  Patagonia.— In  the  Temperate  Zone  of  South 
America  the  northwest  anti-trades  prevail,  giving  central  and 
southern  Chile,  on  the  western  slope,  abundant  rains,  but  leaving 
southern  Argentine  and  Patagonia,  on  the  eastern  slope,  compara- 
tively rainless  and  barren. 

627.  The  La  Plata  Basin.— In  the  La  Plata  Basin  the  anti- 
trades prevail  only  in  the  winter  season  (July).  Then  but  little 
rain  falls,  and  hardy  weeds  are  the  prevailing  vegetation;  but  in 
January  the  zone  of  trade-winds  shifts  far  to  the  southward,  bring- 
ing abundant  rain,  and  a  rich  pasturage  of  grass  covers  the  plains. 

628.  Vertical  Sun  and  Elevations. —  As  the  sun's  rays  are 
nearly  vertical  at  all  times  within  the  Tropics,  an  almost  uniform 
temperature  may  be  enjoyed  throughout  the  year  in  much  of  South 
America;  and  almost  any  degree  of  temperature  may  be  found  at 
different  elevations  upon  the  mountains.  While  the  Plateau  of 
Quito  has  the  temperature  of  perpetual  spring-time,  and  unchang- 
ing summer  heat  prevails  on  the  Amazon  below,  unending  winter 
crowns  the  peaks  above  with  everlasting  snow. 

ANIMAl/S. 

629.  The  Animal  Life  of  this  continent  is  abundant  and  inter- 
esting. Among  the  most  remarkable  animals  are  the  electric  eels 
and  vampire  bats.  Here,  also,  are  the  puma  and  jaguar,  two 
species  of  American  tiger;  the  dreaded  boa-constrictor,  the  condor, 
the  nandu,  or  American  ostrich,  and  the  penguin.  The  tropical 
forests  are  crowded  with  chattering  monkeys  and  bright-plumaged 
birds,  and  insects  are  more  numerous  and  brilliant  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world. 

QUESTIONS. 

Primary  Highlands. — Compare  South  America  with  North  America  in 
respect  to  the  position  and  direction  of  its  mountain-axes.  What  is  the 
predominant  mountain-system  of  South  America?  Describe  it.  Compare 
it  with  the  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America  in  regard  to  length,  width, 
and  height  of  structure.  In  what  latitudes  are  the  Andes  highest?  What 
two  plateaus  in  the  Andes?  Compare  each  with  the  Great  Basin  in  Utah 
and  the  Mexican  Plateau  in  regard  to  elevation.  Are  there  many  or  few 
volcanoes  in  the  Andes?     Are  earthquakes  frequent  or  rare? 

Secondary  Highlands. — What  two  secondary  highland-systems  in  South 
America?  Compare  the  Brazilian  Plateau  with  the  Appalachians  in  conti- 
nental position  and  in  elevation.  What  highland-system  of  North  America 
corresponds  to  the  Plateau  of  Guiana  in  position?  Compare  the  Plateau  of 
Guiana  with  the  Brazilian  Plateau  in  elevation. 

Lowlands. — Describe  the  great  central  plain  of  South  America.  The  coast 
lowlands. 

Drainage. — What  highlands  form  the  primary  continental  divide  of  South 
America?  Describe  the  western  slope.  Extent  of  the  eastern  slope?  By 
what  highlands  divided?  Name  the  three  drainage-basins  of  this  slope  and 
the  corresponding  basins  of  North  America.  Of  the  Amazon  River-S5'stem 
give:  the  number  of  miles  of  navigable  water;  the  length  of  the  Amazon; 
width  at  its  mouth;  cause  and  extent  of  overflow;  cause  of  islands  in  its 
channel.  Describe  the  coast  drainage.  Give  the  location  of  interior  drain- 
age-basins. 

Lakes. — ^What  important  lakes  in  South  America?  For  what  is  Lake 
Titicaca  noted? 

Coast-Line. — Compare  the  coast-line  of  South  America  with  that  of 
North  America.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  coast  islands?  Of  the  oceanic 
islands  off  the  Pacific  coast?  What  rivers  have  estuary  mouths?  What  gulfs 
of  North  America  correspond  to  these  estuaries  in  position? 

their  mouths  are  reversed  with  reference  to  the  Equator,  so  that  the  conditions  as  to  rain- 
fall and  productions  are  quite  unlike. 

2.  The  tide  Is  felt  400  miles  above  the  mouth,  and  at  times  enters  the  river  as  a  rushing 
wall  of  water  40  feet  high,  called  a  bore,  or  proroia, 

*  liana:  a  luxuriant,  woody  creeper  growing  in  tropical  forests. 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


103 


Climate. — What  ocean-currents  along  the  east  coast  of  South  America? 
Along  the  west  coast?  Explain  the  rainfall  of  the  Amazon  Basin.  The 
drouth  of  the  western  slope.  How  many  seasons  in  the  Orinoco  Basin? 
Describe  each. 

What  winds  prevail  in  temperate  South  America?  Explain  the  rainfall 
of  Chile.  The  drouth  of  Patagonia  and  southern  Argentine.  When  do  the 
anti-trade-winds  prevail  in  the  La  Plata  Basin?  Effect  on  rainfall  and  vege- 
tation? At  what  season  do  the  trade-winds  prevail?  Effect  on  rainfall  and 
vegetation? 

Compare  the  Orinoco  Basin  with  the  Mackenzie  Basin  in  regard  to  climate. 
The  Amazon  Basin  with  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  Mississippi  Basin 
with  the  La  Plata  Basin. 

Is  much  or  little  of  South  America  in  the  latitudes  that  have  vertical  sun 
at  some  time  during  the  year?  Is  the  temperature  of  tropical  latitudes 
equable  or  variable?  What  great  differences  of  temperature  occur  along 
the  Equator  in  South  America? 

Animals. — Are  there  many  or  few  animals  in  South  America?  What  do 
you  know  about  electric  eels?  Of  the  animals  named,  what  ones  have  you 
seen?     Describe  them. 

Thought  Questions.— Why  do  most  of  the  rivers  of  South  America  flow 
easterly?  Why  does  the  La  Plata  flow  southerly?  Where  has  man  pro- 
gressed most,  in  the  Amazon  Basin  or  in  the  Mississippi  Basin?  Why? 
Why  are  the  plains  of  the  Amazon  wooded  while  those  of  the  Orinoco  and 
the  La  Plata  are  grassy?  Why  is  the  coast-line  of  South  America  more 
regular  than  that  of  North  America?  Which  of  these  two  continents  has 
the  better  facilities  for  commerce?  Why?  Why  are  the  isotherms  of  South 
America  more  regular  than  those  of  North  America?  Why  does  the  isotherm 
of  70°  bend  northward  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  adjoining  South  America?  Why 
is  it  farther  south  on  the  Atlantic  side?  Which  has  the  greater  extremes  of 
climate,  the  Temperate  Zone  of  South  America  or  of  North  America?  Why? 
When  is  it  winter  in  Argentine?  Which  extends  into  higher  latitudes, 
Argentine  or  Manitoba?  Which  has  the  colder  winter?  Why?  Why  has 
Rio  Janeiro  a  higher  mean  annual  temperature  than  the  same  latitude  on 
the  Pacific  coast?  Which  produces  most  effect  upon  the  climate  of  the 
adjoining  coast,  the  Brazilian  Current  or  the  South  Equatorial  Current? 
Why?  If  a  high  range  of  mountains  like  the  Andes  skirted  the  eastern  coast 
of  South  America,  and  the  mountains  in  the  west  were  very  low,  what  efiect 
would  be  produced  upon  the  rainfall  and  productions  of  the  Amazon  Basin? 
Of  western  Peru?  Of  Patagonia?  How  could  you  arrange  the  mountains 
of  South  America  so  that  nearly  all  of  the  continent  would  be  desert?  So 
that  nearly  all  of  it  would  have  abundant  rainfall?  Lake  Titicaca  is  a  fresh- 
water lake,  and  AuUagas  is  salt:  Can  you  tell  why? 

POLITICAL  DESCRIPTION.' 

630.  Vegetable  Resources  and  Products.— The  most  notable 
native  trees  of  commercial  value  are  those  which  yield  India- 
rubber,  vegetable  ivory,  dye-woods,  cabinet-woods,  Brazil  nuts, 
Peruvian  bark  (the  source  of  quinine),  mat^,  or  Paraguay  tea, 
cocoa,  and  chocolate. 

The  useful  native  herbs  are  manioc,  which  yields  tapioca; 
potato;  Indian  corn,  or  maize;  peanuts;  beans;  peppers;  tobacco, 
and  many  medicinal  plants,  such  as  sarsaparilla. 

Coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  products 
of  cultivation  exported. 

631.  Useful  Animals  and  their  Products.— The  most  useful 
native  animals  are  the  llama,  vicuna,  alpaca,  and  guanaco,  small 
animals  of  the  camel  family,  found  and  used  only  in  the  Andes. 
The  first  named,  though  but  little  larger  than  a  sheep,  is  a  valuable 
beast  of  burden  in  the  higher  mountains,  where  mules  and  donkeys 
cannot  endure  the  diminished  air  pressure.  The  others,  still 
smaller,  furnish  hair  or  wool  valuable  for  making  cloth.  Fish  are 
abundant  in  the  large  rivers,  and  there  are  many  more  kinds  than 
are  found  in  North  America. 


632.  Occupations.— Mining,  agriculture,  and  stock-raising  are 
the  chief  occupations,  and  all  are  poorly  carried  on.  Stock-raising 
has  scarcely  passed  the  semi-civilized  stage.     Hides,  horns,  and 

L  Before  reading  this  description,  study  omitted  map  questions,  p.  100. 


tallow,  instead  of  butter,  cheese,  and  beef,  are  yet  the  chief  products 
from  the  herds.  But  in  the  southern  countries  they  now  prepare 
an  extract  of  beef,  and  send  some  frozen  meat  to  Europe. 

633.  Minerals. — All  the  Andean  countries  contain  ricli  mines 
of  silver  and  gold,  as  well  as  the  ores  of  baser  metals.  Gold  is 
found  also  in  Guiana  and  Brazil.  The  diamonds  of  Brazil  are  of 
the  finest  quality.     Coal  is  scarce. 

634.  Inhabitants. — With  an  area  about  twice  that  of  the 
United  States — excluding  Alaska — South  America  has  probably 
not  half  as  many  inhabitants.  Half  of  the  civilized  people  live  in 
the  valleys  whose  waters  enter  the  -ocean  between  Cape  St.  Roque 
and  Cape  Corrientes  (cor  riSn'tes). 

Indian  blood  predominates  in  the  mixed  population  of  the 
Spanish  American  countries.  In  Brazil  and  Guiana  there  are 
many  negroes,  and  Indians  form  a  large  part  of  the  population. 
Portuguese  is  the  language  of  the  educated  classes  in  Brazil. 
Except  in  Guiana,  Spanish  is  the  language  mostly  used  in  the 
other  countries.  Portugal  and  Spain  colonized  South  America 
more  than  seventy  j^ears  before  England  and  France  established 
settlements  in  North  America. 

635.  Government  and  Religion. — For  nearly  three  hundred 
years  Portugal  and  Spain  ruled  their  colonies  in  South  America. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  Spanish  colonies,  by  success- 
ful rebellions,  became  independent  republics,  except  Brazil,  which 
became  an  empire  under  a  son  of  the  King  of  Portugal.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  of  South  America  is  Roman  Catholic. 

COUNTRIES. 

636.  Brazil  became  a  republic  in  1889.  This  country  is  about  as 
large  as  the  United  States,  but  the  population  is  only  equal  to  that 
of  the  three  States  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.  Most  of 
the  population  is  in  the  coast  country  south  of  Cape  St.  Roque. 

Though  the  wonderful  agricultural  resources  of  the  Amazon 
Basin  are  almost  entirely  undeveloped,  Ri'o  Ja  n«'ro  exports  more 
than  half  of  all  the  cofiee  used  in  the  world.  India-rubber,  sugar, 
cattle  products,  and  forest  products  are  shipped  at  the  ports  of  the 
northeast  coast.  There  were  in  1 890  over  a  million  of  negro  slaves, 
but  all  their  children  are  free. 

Rio  Janeiro  has  nearly  half  a  million  inhabitants. 

637.  Venezuela  is  about  as  large  as  California,  Nevada,  and 
Arizona,  taken  together.  Coffee,  cocoa,  and  other  tropical  products 
are  exported  from  the  northern  ports.  The  cattle  products  are  sent 
down  the  Orinoco. 

638.  Colombia  is  the  most  important  of  the  northern  republics. 
The  Magdalena  River,  navigable  for  over  500  miles,  gives  access 
to  the  interior.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  is  a  part  of  this 
republic,  is  a  great  commercial  highwaj'  between  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Pacific  oceans.  The  exports  are  coifee,  Peruvian  bark,  tobacco, 
and  some  hides  from  the  southeastern  plains. 

Bogota  is  nearly  9,000  feet  above  the  ocean-level. 

639.  Ecuador  has  an  area  about  equal  to  California  and  Oregon. 
It  has  all  the  possible  equable  climates,  from  the  torrid  heat  of  the 
coast  to  the  frigid  cold  of  the  lofty  peaks.  The  medium  climate 
of  the  plateau  valleys  is  delightful.  Considerable  wheat  is  grown 
at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet.  Cocoa,  Peruvian  bark,  coffee,  and 
India-rubber  are  exported. 

Quito  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world  having  anywhere  near  its 
elevation  of  9,500  feet. 

640.  Peru. — At  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  the  Spaniards,  this 
part  of  South  America  was  the  seat  of  empire  of  the  most  intelli- 


104 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


gent  people  of  the  continent.  Their  aqueducts,*  public  roads,  and 
edifices  were  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  built  by  their  con- 
querors. The  chief  exports  are  guano  and  soda-saltpeter  from  the 
coast,  alpaca  wool  from  the  plateau,  and  sugar  from  the  lowlands. 

641.  Bolivia  reaches  from  the  low  plains  of  the  Paraguay  River 
up  to  the  lofty  plateau  which  it  shares  with  Peru.  The  mineral 
resources  of  Bolivia  are  great.  The  silver  mines  of  Potosi — the 
loftiest  in  the  world — are  said  to  be  inexhaustible.  Among  the 
exports  are  India-rubber  and  alpaca  wool. 

642.  Chile  has  an  almost  straight  sea-coast  nearly  3,000  miles 
long.  Its  average  width  is  less  than  100  miles.  It  esjtends  south 
from  well  within  the  Torrid  Zone  to  where  glaciers  reach  the 
ocean;  from  rainless  Ataea'ma  to  the  rain-drenched,  almost  sun- 
less coast  of  Patagonia.  The  productions  of  central  Chile  resemble 
those  of  California.  The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  leather,  copper, 
guano,  and  nitrate  of  soda.  The  foreign  population,  mostly  Ger- 
man and  English,  largely  controls  manufactures  and  trade. 

Valparaiso,  a  city  of  nearly  100,000  inhabitants,  is  the  chief  sea- 
port of  the  Andean  countries. 

643.  Argentine  Republic. — This  country,  with  an  area  one 
third  that  of  the  United  States,  has,  during  the  last  ten  years, 
increased  more  rapidly  in  population  than  any  other  South  Amer- 
ican country.  Its  commerce  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 
Wool,  hides,  tallow,  some  dried  beef,  and  frozen  mutton  are  among 
the  exports.    The  cereal  products  are  rapidly  increasing. 

Buenos  Ayres,  now  the  largest  city  in  the  world  south  of  the 
Equator,  has  over  500,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  less  than  half  are 
natives.     In  1887  nearly  one  third  of  the  people  were  Italians. 

644.  Paraguay  is  about  as  large  as  Oregon.  Its  agricultural 
resources  and  climate  are  probably  not  surpassed  by  any  country. 
The  forests  furnish  a  great  variety  of  valuable  woods.  Over 
24,000,000  pounds  of  the  dried  leaves  of  the  yerba  mat^,  which 
grows  only  in  this  region,  are  annually  used  for  making  tea. 

Oranges  of  the  best  quality  grow  wild  over  the  whole  country 
east  of  the  Paraguay.  From  May  to  August  of  each  year  about 
60,000,000  are  exported. 

645.  Uruguay,  the  smallest  country  of  South  America,  is  not 
qiiite  half  as  large  as  California.     Its  fertile,  undulating,  partly 


wooded  plains  are  devoted  to  stock-raising.     Wool  is  the  chief 
export. 

Mon  te  vM'eo,  the  capital,  has  a  large  foreign  population,  mostly 
Italians. 

646.  Guiana  is  the  name  given  to  the  territory  held  as  colonial 
possessions  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  Netherlands.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  low,  moist  coast  are  mostly  negroes,  who  raise 
sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  rice,  and  coffee.  Indians  inhabit  the  mount- 
ainous interior. 

647.  Islands. — Terra  del  Fuego  has  an  area  equal  to  that 
of  San  Bernardino  County.  It  furnishes  pasturage  for  sheep. 
Pun'ta  A  re'nas,  a  town  of  about  i  ,000  inhabitants,  receives  and 
ships  the  live-stock  products  of  the  Island  of  Terra  del  Fuego  and 
the  neighboring  mainland.     No  other  people  live  so  far  south. 

The  Falkland  Islands  number  nearly  200.  The  two  larger 
together  have  an  area  equal  to  that  of  Lassen  County.  The  cool 
climate  makes  it  impossible  to  raise  anything  but  a  few  hardy 
vegetables.  Nutritious  grasses  and  other  herbage  furnish  food 
for  stock.     The  inhabitants,  mostly  English,  number  about  i  ,000. 

QUJ^STIONS. 

General. — Which  tree  of  South  America  do  you  think  has  the  greatest 
commercial  value?  Which  is  the  source  of  a  medicine  in  common  use? 
What  plant  yields  tapioca?  For  what  is  tapioca  used?  What  are  the  chief 
export  products?  To  what  family  do  most  of  the  useful  native  animals 
belong?  Which  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden?  Which  yield  material  for 
cloth?  What  are  the  chief  products  of  stock-raising?  Where  are  the  gold 
and  silver  mines?  The  diamond  mines?  How  does  the  population  of  South 
America  compare  with  that  of  the  United  States?  Where  is  the  civilized 
population  most  dense?  What  European  languages  are  chiefly  spoken  in 
South  America?  In  what  part  is  each  used?  Did  Europeans  settle  South 
America  earlier  or  later  than  North  America?  How  much?  What  is  the 
prevailing  religion? 

Cotmtries. — Compare  Brazil  in  size  and  population  with  the  United  States. 
Area  and  exports  of  Venezuela.  What  do  you  think  the  chief  importance 
of  Colombia?  What  are  the  exports?  Of  Eucador  give:  area;  climate. 
Quito:  exports.  What  of  minerals  in  Bolivia?  Of  Chile  give:  length  of 
sea-coast;  width;  zones;  products.  Of  Argentine  give:  area;  growth;  ex- 
ports. Area  of  Paraguay;  agricultural  resources;  forests;  oranges.  State 
four  facts  about  Uruguay.  Describe  Guiana,  its  inhabitants  and  products. 
Give  the  number  and  population  of  the  Falkland  Islands.  Mention  seven 
important  cities  of  South  America,  and  state  the  country  in  which  each  is 
found,  and  its  chief  distinction. 


QUESTIONS   ON    MAP   OF   EURASIA. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 


Position. — [See  p.  6.]  From  what  meridian  is  longitude  reckoned?  If 
you  travel  westward  from  this  meridian  at  what  meridian  will  you  enter 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere?  Give  the  location  of  Eurasia  as  to  Eastern 
and  Western  Hemispheres.  As  to  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres? 
What  part  is  in  our  hemisphere?  What  direction  is  it  from  Africa?  From 
Australia?  What  ocean  separates  it  from  North  America  on  the  west?  On 
the  east?  On  the  north?  What  ocean  at  the  south?  Which  ocean  touch- 
ing Eurasia  is  the  largest?  The  smallest?  What  strait  separates  Eurasia 
from  North  America  at  the  northeast?  What  isthmus  joins  Eurasia  and 
Africa?  What  strait  and  seas  separate  Eurasia  from  Africa  at  the  south- 
west?   What  is  the  larger,  Eurasia  or  North  America? 

[See  Political  Map  of  Eurasia.]  Between  what  extremes  of  latitude  does 
Eurasia  lie?  Of  longitude?  In  what  zone  is  most  of  Eurasia?  What 
countries  of  Eurasia  lie  partly  in  the  Torrid  Zone?  Partly  in  the  Frigid 
Zone?  Compare  Eurasia  with  North  America  in  regard  to  zonal  position. 
Which  extends  farther  north?     Farther  south? 

Shape. — Is  the  greatest  extent  of  Eurasia  from  east  to  west  or  from  north 
to  south?  Compare  it  with  North  America  in  this  respect.  Is  the  width  of 
Eurasia,  from  north  to  south,  greatest  in  the  east  or  in  the  west?  What  is 
the  general  shape  of  Eurasia? 


Relief. — Beginning  at  the  Pyrenees  and  going  easterly,  name  in  order  and 
give  the  location  of  all  the  mountain-ranges  to  the  Himalayas;  thence  north- 
easterly to  Bering  Sea.  Using  the  scale  of  miles,  determine  the  length  of 
this  system  of  mountain-chains  reaching  from  Spain  to  Bering  Sea.  Com- 
pare its  length  with  that  of  the  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America.  What 
sea  breaks  through  this  great  system?  Where  is  the  Pa  meer'  Plateau? 
What  mountain-ranges  trend  easterly  from  the  Pameer?  Westerly?  North- 
erly? What  mountain-range  bounds  the  Plateau  of  Tib'et  on  the  north? 
On  the  south?  What  moimtains  bound  eastern  Turkestan'  on  the  north? 
On  the  south?  What  mountains  bound  the  Desert  of  Gobi  on  the  north? 
On  the  south?  On  the  east?  Beginning  at  the  north,  name  the  mountain- 
ranges  in  the  eastern  part  of  Eurasia  parallel  to  the  Pacific  coast,  or  nearly 
so.  Where  is  Mount  Ararat?  Mount  Everest?  Where  are  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts  (gawts)?  The  Ural  Mountains?  The  Scandinavian 
Alps?  What  is  the  trend  of  these  ranges  compared  with  that  of  the  great 
mountain-system  of  Eurasia?  What  large  island  nearly  in  line  with  the 
Ghauts  at  the  south?  With  the  Ural  Mountains  at  the  north?  Where  are 
the  Val'dai  Hills?  What  mountainous  islands  and  peninsula  parallel  to 
the  eastern  coast  of  Eurasia?  To  which  coast  of  Eurasia  are  the  Scandi- 
navian Alps  parallel? 


*mfuetiiui:  aa  artificiml  chajinel  for  conveying:  water. 


EURASIA. 


105 


[See  Relief  Map  of  Eurasia.  ]  Which  half  of  Eurasia  is  most  mountainous, 
the  northern  or  southern?  The  eastern  or  western?  In  what  general 
direction  does  the  principal  mountain-axis  of  Eurasia  extend?  Compare  it 
with  the  primary  axis  of  North  America  in  this  respect.  Is  it  more  regular 
or  less  regular  than  the  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America?  Than  the 
Andean  System?  Where  is  the  Eurasian  axis  widest,  in  the  east  or  in  the 
west?     Has  it  many  or  few  spurs?     Has  Eurasia  many  or  few  peninsulas? 


Gobi.  The  Pameer.  What  is  the  least  elevation  of  each  as  indicated  by 
the  colors  on  the  map?  Which  has  the  larger  area  situated  more  than  10,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  Eurasia  or  North  America?  Eurasia  or 
South  America?  Are  the  principal  lowlands  of  Eurasia  central  or  along  the 
oceans?  Where  is  the  great  Eurasian  plain?  What  mountain-system 
forms  the  southern  and  eastern  boundaries?  What  mountain-system  on 
the  northwest?      What    moxnitain-ohain    intersects   the   great  plain?     On 


Islands?  Gulfs  and  seas?  Point  out  the  Alps  on  the  relief  map;  the  I'yre- 
nees;  the  Himalayas;  the  Urals;  the  Valdai  Hills;  the  Scandinavian  Alps; 
the  Caucasus;  the  Thi(te)an'  Shan;  the  Stan  o  voi'  Mountains;  the  Yab  15  noi' 
Mountains;  the  Khin  Gan'  Mountains.  Which  of  these  ranges  appear  lofty 
on  the  relief  map?  Which  slope  of  the  Eurasian  axis  is  the  longer,  the 
northern  or  the  southern?  Are  the  Ural  Mountains  and  Scandinavian  Alps 
spurs  of  the  primary  axis,  or  do  they  appear  like  secondary  axes? 

[See  Physical  Map,  p.  109.]  Which  half  of  Eurasia  has  most  highland, 
the  northern  or  the  southern?  The  eastern  or  the  western?  Near  which 
ocean  are  the  highest  elevations  of  Eurasia?  The  largest  lowland  regions? 
Along  the  coast  of  which  ocean  is  the  strip  of  shallow  ocean  widest?  Are 
the  peninsulas  and  islands  generally  highlands  or  lowlands?  Are  the  seas, 
gulfs,  and  bays  generally  shallow  or  deep  along  the  northern  coast?  Along 
the  southern  coast?  The  eastern  coast?  Along  which  two  oceans  would  the 
greatest  additions  be  made  to  Eurasia  by  an  elevation  of  1,000  feet?  Are  the 
islands  of  Eurasia  in  deep  or  shallow  ocean?  Are  volcanoes  more  numerous  • 
on  the  mainland  of  Eurasia  or  on  the  islands?  Compare  Eurasia  with  South 
America  in  this  respect.  Are  the  volcanoes  of  Eurasia  generally  in  high- 
lands or  in  lowlands?     Along  which  ocean  are  volcanoes  most  numerous? 

Is  the  great  Eurasian  axis  highest  in  the  east  or  in  the  west?    Point  out 
the  location  of  the  Plateau  of  Tibet  on  the  physical  map.     The  Desert  of 


which  slope  are  the  most  extensive  plains?    The  most  rivers?     The  longest 
rivers? 

Drainage.— [See  Political  Map  of  Eurasia.]  Beginning  at  Spain,  name,  in 
their  order,  going  easterly,  all  the  rivers  of  Eurasia  on  the  southern  slope  of 
the  great  Eurasian  axis,  and  name  the  waters  into  which  they  flow.  On 
the  northern  slope.  Beginning  at  Bering  Strait,  and  going  southerly,  name, 
in  their  order,  all  the  rivers  on  the  easterly  slope  of  Eurasia.  Name  three 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Black  Sea.  What  rivers  flow  into  the  Caspian?  The 
Aral?  What  rivers  rise  in  the  Valdai  Hills?  In  the  Himalayas?  In  the 
Plateau  of  Tibet?  Name  two  rivers  of  Eurasia  that  have  deltas.  Name 
and  give  the  location  of  the  five  longest  rivers  of  Eurasia.  Compare  them 
in  length  with  the  longest  rivers  of  North  America.     Of  South  America. 

Lakes. — Where  is  Lake  B<ii'kal?  Lake  Bal  kash'  ?  The  Caspian  Sea? 
The  Aral?  The  Marshes  of  Pinsk?  Where  in  Eurasia  is  the  land-surface 
below  the  ocean-level?    Where  are  the  tundras? 

Deserts. — Where  are  the  Kir  gheez'  Steppes?  What  desert  in  Hindoostan? 
What  two  in  Arabia?    Where  is  the  Desert  of  Gobi  ? 

Coast-Line. — Beginning  at  Spain,  and  going  easterly,  name,  in  their  order, 
and  give  the  location  of  all  the  peninsulas  on  the  southern  and  eastern 
coasts.    On  western  and  northern  coasts.    All  the  islands  or  groups  of  islaads 


"6 


Lonpitxide  *& 


West 


from  -^ 


Greenwich 


A 


.^ 


0 


•*<>►.. 


ti 


X^°^, 


0 


Crtte^'A^K}?''  -Girls'"  "'*  / 


■c,lli»J_ 


(<■/<?" 


•'< 


.  ^ 


ROC 


-Z) 


.'•W. 


v~ 


??£*■(/ 


^v  ^^<-.< 


.U^Zs^ 


\     7  \    F\i^V  -rT 


Pen 


prto 
^K  •>g/|J,  e  e 


-'^'^^J-Tr-^ 


T     t 


/1^   " s> 


/-I 


rcaj 


y-x^^  \^'^  V^^ 


"'   "eaert  ^^f^ 


*»"*""^.f 


Wi.^ 


/""i 

•S-^ 


■■'"/< 


f;^<^«       Ka«3«« 


D.,'..,.'^./     *"■ 


»  SOCOTRA  1. 


"^"^A,/ 


108 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


on  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts.  On  the  western  and  northern  coasts. 
All  the  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  on  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts.  On  the 
western  and  northern  coasts.  What  peninsulas  and  islands  partly  inclose 
the  Mediterranean  Sea?  The  Adriatic  Sea?  The  Ionian  Sea?  The  Persian 
Gulf?  Arabian  Sea?  Bay  of  Ben  gal'?  South  China  Sea?  East  China  Sea? 
Yellow  Sea?  Japan  Sea?  Gulf  of  Tartary?  Ok  hotsk'  Sea?  Kara  Sea? 
White  Sea?  North  Sea?  Baltic  Sea?  Gulf  of  Bothnia?  Bay  of  Biscay? 
On  the  northern  and  western  coasts,  what  peninsulas  of  Eurasia  are 
mountain-ranges?  Which  are  plateaus?  What  capes  of  Eurasia  terminate 
mountain-ranges?  What  islands?  What  peninsula  and  chains  of  islands 
border  the  eastern  coast  of  Eurasia?  Are  they  mountainous  or  level?  To 
what  mountain-ranges  of  Eurasia  are  they  nearly  parallel?  What  seas 
separate  them  from  the  mainland?  What  seas  and  gulfs  between  the  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula  and  the  mainland?  What  islands  nearly  in  line  with 
the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  at  the  southwest?    At  the  north? 

Take  up  next,  the  map  exercises  on  Eurasia  in  connection  with: 

(i)  The  Map  of  Ocean-Currents,  p.  27.  (2)  The  Maps  of  Thermal  Zones, 
p.  22.  (3)  The  Maps  of  Barometric  Pressure,  p.  25.  (4)  The  Map  of  Rain- 
fall, p.  26. 

Exercises  and  Problems. — Usi«g  the  scale  of  miles,  determine  the  distance 
from  Gibraltar  to  Tok'yo,  and  from  Bering  Strait  to  Sin'ga  pore. 

Model  the  Scandinavian  Mountains  with  sand;  the  Urals;  the  great 
Eurasian  axis.  Model  Eurasia  with  sand.  Make  a  sketch-map  of  the 
mountain-systems  of  Eurasia. 

Make  a  profile  section  of  Eurasia  in  the  longitude  of  Calcutta.  Of  Te  he- 
ran'.  In  longitude  10°  east.  Through  Can  t6n'  and  St.  Petersburg.  Through 
Calcutta  and  St;  Petersburg.  In  the  latitude  of  St.  Petersburg.  Of  London. 
Of  Rome.    Of  Shanghai.    Of  Bombay. 

Make  a  sketch-map  of  the  Volga  River-System.  Of  the  Lena.  Of  the 
Yen  e  se'i.  Make  a  sketch-map  of  Eurasia,  showing  mountain-systems  and 
drainage. 


Omit  the  following  until  taking  up  Political  Eurasia,  p.  no: 
Location  of  Countries. — What  great  empire  occupies  most  of  the  northern 
half  of  Eurasia?  What  great  empire  in  the  eastern  part  of  Eurasia?  What 
island  empire  east  of  China?  What  countries  south  of  the  Chinese  Empire? 
What  country  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea?  What  two  countries  between  Persia 
and  India?  What  country  north  of  Af  ghan  is  tan' ?  West  of  Persia?  South 
of  Turkey  ?  What  empire  and  what  monarchy  adjoin  Russia  on  the  southwest? 

BJJSSIA. 

Position. — What  cape  at  the  extreme  east  of  the  Russian  Empire?  What 
strait?  What  river  and  mountains  partly  separate  the  Russian  Empire 
from  the  Chinese  Empire?  What  ocean  and  two  seas  east  of  the  Russian 
Empire?  What  ocean  north?  What  sea  and  gulfs  west?  Three  seas  south- 
west? 

Rivers. — What  three  great  rivers  flow  northerly  into  the  Arctic?  Name 
two  rivers  flowing  into  the  Black  Sea.  Two  into  the  Caspian.  One  into 
the  Aral. 

Deserts. — Where  are  the  tundras?    The  Kirgheez  Steppes? 

Islands. — Where  is  Spitzbergen?  Franz  Josef  Land?  New  Siberia 
Islands?     Nova  Zembla?    Sag  ha  lin'?     Kamchatka? 

Wild  Tribes. — Where  do  the  Keriaks  live?  The  Tschuktschis?  The 
Kirgheez? 

Cities. — Where  is  St.  Petersburg?  Moscow?  Warsaw?  Kiev  (ki  6v')? 
Sgbasto'pol?  Lower  Nov  go  r6d'?  O  dgs'sa?  Tiflis?  As  tra  khan'?  Tash- 
k£nd'?  Khiva  (ke'va)?  Perm?  Ekaterinburg  (a  ka  ta  reen  boorg')?  Omsk? 
Tob61sk'?  Tomsk?  Irkutsk'?  Ki  akh'ta?  Yakutsk'?  Via  div  ostSk? 
Ti  u  men'?    Ta  breez'?     What  is  the  capital  of  the  Russian  Empire? 

Travels. — How  could  you  travel  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Yakutsk?  From 
St.  Petersburg  to  Sam  ar  cand'?  From  Ekaterinburg  to  Vladivostok?  What 
great  transcontinental  railway  is  being  built  in  the  Russian  Empire?  Where 
in  the  Russian  Emoire  are  railroads  most  numerous? 


EURASIA. 


PHYSICAL   DESCRIPTION. 

EXTENT,  SHAPE,  AND  EI.BVATIONS. 

648.  General  Comparison  with  Other  Continents. — Eurasia, 
the  largest  of  the  continents,  is  about  two  and  one  half  times  the 
extent  of  North  America.  It  is  very  irregular  in  outhne,  due  to 
the  great  irregularity  of  its  mountain-systems.  It  has  the  highest 
and  most  extensive  mountain-system  and  the  largest  low  plain  in 
the  world,  and  surpasses  all  other  continents  in  the  number  and 
extent  of  its  plateaus,  peninsulas,  islands,  seas,  and  gulfs;  in  the 
number  of  its  desert  regions,  and  in  the  extent  of  its  coast-line. 
Like  the  Americas,  Eurasia  is  triangular  in  shape,  but,  unlike 
them,  its  greatest  extent  is  from  east  to  west.' 

HIGHLANDS. 

649.  The  Great  Eurasian  Axis. — The  primary  Eurasian 
axis  of  elevation  consists  of  a  continuous  series  of  plateaus  and 
their  accompanying  mountain-ranges,  extending  from  Portugal  to 
Bering  Strait.  The  succession  of  peninsulas  and  islands,  and  their 
inclosed  seas,gulfs, and  bays, extending  from  Spain  to  Kamchatka, 
is  formed  by  spurs  from  this  system. 

650.  From  Spain  to  the  Plateau  of  Pameer. — Beginning 
with  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet  in  Spain,  it  increases  to  5,000  feet 
in  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  then  rises  abruptly  to  the  Pameer 
Plateau,  more  than  10,000  feet  high. 

651.  Plateau  of  Pameer. — Surrounding  this  lofty  plateau  is 
the  grandest  mountain-knot  in  the  world,  formed  by  the  meeting 

1.  Eurasia  is  usually  considered  as  two  continents— Europe  and  Asia.  There  is  evidence 
that  the  two  were  once  separated  from  each  other  by  a  great  interior  sea  connecting  the 
Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Black  Sea  and  comprising  the  basins  of  the  Caspian  and  Aral,  and  the 


of  the  Su  let  man',  Hindoo- Koosh,  Thian  Shan,  Kuen  Lun,  Kara- 
korum,  and  Himalaya  mountains.  In  a  comparatively  limited 
area  are  120  peaks  above  20,000  feet,  and  40  exceeding  23,000  feet 
high,  among  which  is  Mount  Everest  (29,000  feet),  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world. 

652.  From  the  Pameer  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. — From  the 
Pameer  the  Eurasian  highlands  diverge  northeasterly  to  Bering 
Strait,  and  southeasterly  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  inclosing  the 
extensive  plateau  region  of  central  Asia.  The  southeasterly  arm 
of  the  primary  axis  is  also  continued  beyond  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
by  the  Sunda  Islands,  almost  to  Australia. 

653.  Elevations  Parallel  to  the  Pacific  Coast. — The  plateaus 
of  central  Asia  are  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Kinghan  Mount- 
ains. These,  with  the  Stanovoi,  form  a  sj'stem  parallel  to  the 
Pacific  coast;  and  the  Peninsula  of  Kamchatka  and  the  Koo'ril, 
Japan,  Liu  Kiu',  and  Philippine  islands  form  a  partly  submerged 
mountain-system  parallel  to  the  coast. 

654.  Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes  of  the  Central  Axis. — 
The  main  Eurasian  axis  is  remarkably  free  from  volcanoes  and 
earthquakes;  but  the  islands  and  borders  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  are  subject  to  frequent  and  violent  earthquakes,  and  here  are 
also  found  four  of  the  most  noted  active  volcanoes  in  the  world — 
Vesuvius,  Etna,  Stromboli,  and  Santorin.  The  island  groups 
along  the  Pacific  coast  contain  a  large  number  of  active  volcanoes, 
and  are  subject  to  almost  constant  earthquake  action. 

655.  The  Secondary  Axis  in  Eurasia. — The  Scandinavian 
Peninsula  (Non\'ay  and  Sweden)  and  the  British  Isles  constitute 

obi  River;  but  there  Is  now  no  physical  reason  for  making  such  a  division.  In  describing 
the  continent  in  these  pages,  the  terms  "Europe"  and  "Asia"  are,  however,  frequently  used* 
where  it  is  thought  that  their  use  will  help  to  a  readier  understanding  of  what  is  said. 


EURASIA. 


109 


the  secondary  axis  of  Eurasia,  analogous  to  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  of  North  America.  The  Ural  Mountains,  generally 
less  than  2,000  feet  high,  may  be  compared  to  The  Height  of 
Land,  because,  like  it,  they  intersect  the  great  low  plain  of  the 
continent. 

LOWI^ANDS. 

656.  Southern  and  Eastern  Slopes. — On  the  southern  and 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Eurasian  axis  the  lowlands  are  limited  to  the 
alluvial  plains  along  the  river-courses. 

657.  Great  Eurasian  Plain. — On  the  north  lies  the  Great 
Eurasian  Plain,  the  most  extensive  low- 
land region  in  the  world.  It  has  a 
length  from  east  to  west  of  nearly  7,000 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from 
north  to  south  is  2,500  miles.  In  the 
east  it  rises  by  terraces  into  the  Altai 
and  Stanovoi  mountains;  but  in  the 
north  and  west  it  scarcely  rises  above 
the  ocean,  and  in  the  south  a  large  area 
about  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas  is  below 
the  sea-levels. 

658.  Tundras  and  Steppes. — North 
of  60°  the  Eurasian  Plain  consists  of 
vast  frozen  swamps,  called  tundras;  and 
south  of  50°  it  consists  of  arid  regions, 
called  steppes. 

DRAIN AGJS. 

659.  The  Continental  Divide.— The 

Eurasian  axis  divides  the  continent  into 
a  short  southern  slope  and  a  long  north- 
ern slope — the  Great  Eurasian  Plain. 

660.  Drainage  -  Areas.  —  There  are 
five  g^eat  drainage-areas:  ( i )  The  north- 
ern, or  Arctic  slope;  (2)  the  eastern, 
or  Pacific  slope;  (3)  the  western,  or 
Atlantic  slope;  (4)  the  southern  slope 
into  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea;  and  (5)  the  interior  drain- 
age-basins. 

661.  The  Rivers  of  the  Arctic  Slope  have  long  lower 
courses.  They  all  open  into  shallow  seas,  and  are  rapidly  extend- 
ing the  continent  by  deltas  and  sea-shore  formations.  They  are 
of  little  commercial  importance. 

662.  The  Rivers  of  the  Eastern  and  Southern  Slopes  rise 
in  lofty  mountains  and  plateaus,  in  many  cases  in  great  glaciers; 
they  all  carry  great  quantities  of  detritus,  and  have  built  up  more 
or  less  extensive  alluvial  plains  and  deltas.  The  delta  of  the 
Ganges  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  Some  of  these  rivers  have 
great  length,  but  their  navigable  lower  courses  are  short. 

663.  The  Rivers  of  the  Western  Slope  are  short,  but  most 
of  them  are  important  commercial  highways. 

664.  Interior  Drainage-Areas. — A  remarkable  series  of 
depressions,  with  interior  drainage  into  brackish  or  salt  seas  or 
lakes,  extends  through  the  center  of  the  continent.  These 
depressions  comprise  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas,  Lake  Balkash, 
eastern  Turkestan,  and  the  Desert  of  Gobi.' 

1.  The  Black  Sea  still  has  a  narrow  and  shallow  outlet;  but  the  inflow  from  the  Danube, 
Don,  Dniester  (nees^ter),  and  Dnieper  (nS'per)  do  not  compensate  for  the  great  evapora- 


665.  Glaciers. — The  Alps,  Caucasus,  Altai,  Scandinavian,  and 
Himalaya  mountains  contain  numerous  glaciers,  those  of  the  Alps 
being  the  best  known  in  the  world. 

666.  Lakes. — Aside  from  the  interior  basins  mentioned  above, 
there  are  few  lakes  of  importance  in  Eurasia.  Lake  Baikal  is  a 
fresh-water  lake,  about  as  long  as  Lake  Superior,  but  not  so  wide. 
In  Finland,  Scandinavia,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  Alps  are 
numerous  small  lakes,  most  of  which  are  probably  of  glacial 
origin.  In  the  plateaus  of  Arabia  and  Persia  are  many  small 
salt  or  brackish  lakes,  among  which  is  the  Dead  Sea,  which  is 
intensely  salt  and  1,300  feet  below  the  ocean-level. 


CJ^IMATS. 

667.  Compared  with  North  America. — Eurasia,  like  North 
America,  lies  principally  within  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  and 
both  continents  are  broad  toward  the  north,  and  have  typical 
continental  climates.  The  western  coast  of  each  is  warmed  by  an 
ocean-current  from  tropical  seas,  and  the  eastern  coast  is  cooled  by 
the  Arctic  cold  of  a  polar  current.  But  the  great  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  two  continents,  and  in  the  direction  of  their  primary 
mountain  axes,  produces  marked  differences  in  climate,  especially 
with  regard  to  rainfall. 

668.  Temperature. — Siberia  is  the  coldest  inhabited  country 
on  the  globe,  while  India  and  Arabia  are  among  the  hottest. 

The  steppes  and  plateaus  in  the  center  of  the  continent  have 
the  greatest  extremes  of  temperature  in  the  world — from  30°  below 
zero  in  the  winter  to  1 20°  above  in  the  summer. 

On  the  west  and  northwest,  even  as  far  north  as  Norway,  the 
climate  is  influenced  by  the  warm  Gulf-Stream,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  warm  winds  of  the  Mediterranean  and  by  the  protection 

tion.    In  consequence,  a  current  of  salt  water  pours  in  from  the  Mediterranean  during 
part  of  the  year. 


110 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


from  Arctic  winds  afibrded  by  the  mountains  of  the  Eurasian  axis. 
The  cUmate  of  southern  Europe  is  warmer  than  that  of  equal 
latitudes  anj'where  else  in  the  world,  and  the  summer  and  winter 
temperatures  differ  by  only  15°. 

669.  Rainfall. — Europe,  lying  in  the  path  of  the  moist  anti- 
trade-winds, has  abundant  rainfall,  and  has  no  unproductive 
territory  excepting  in  the  high  mountains  and  the  extreme  north. 

In  the  Great  Eurasian  Plain  there  is  a  fair  supply  of  moisture 
north  of  50°.  In  the  steppe  regions  about  the  Caspian  and  Aral 
seas  there  is  abundant  snow  during  the  cold  winters;  but,  from  lack 
of  moisture-laden  winds,  the  intensely  hot  summers  are  rainless. 

The  southwest  monsoon  precipitates  abundant  moisture  upon 
the  Western  Ghauts  and  the  Himalayas,  but  on  account  of  the 
excessive  heat  at  that  season  of  the  j'ear,  less  is  precipitated  upon 
the  plains  of  Hindoostan.     (See  Sec.  146.) 

Arabia  and  Persia  and  the  plateaus  of  central  Asia  are  also 
largely  desert  tracts. 

PRODUCTIONS,  ANIMALS,  AND  PBOPLS. 

670.  The  Productions  of  Eurasia  are  similar  to  those  of  like 
latitudes  in  North  America;  but  in  Europe  the  limit  of  cereals  is 
farther  north,  and  in  Asia  farther  south.  The  tundras  at  the 
north  and  the  steppe  and  desert  regions  of  the  south  and  central 
parts  of  the  continent  are  practically  unproductive,  but  this  con- 
tinent as  a  whole  supports  a  greater  population  per  square  mile 
than  is  supported  by  any  other  of  the  continents.  It  is  the  original 
home  of  nearly  all  the  cereals  and  fruits  cultivated  by  man. 

671.  Animals. — In  tropical  Eurasia  lions,  tigers,  and  elephants 
are  characteristic  animals.  In  the  desert  regions  the  camel  is  the 
only  important  animaL 

672.  Inhabitants. — North  of  the  Eurasian  axis  in  Asia  the 
Mongoloid  type  of  man,  low  in  civilization,  despotic  in  govern- 
ment, and  pagan  in  religion,  prevails. 

On  the  southern  slope  the  "dark-whites"  prevail.  Here,  pro- 
tected by  high  mountain  barriers  from  the  Arctic  winds  and 
hostile  Mongols  of  the  north,  rose  all  the  great  civilizations  of 
ancient  times,  excepting  the  Egyptian  and  Chinese. 

In  modem  times  the  white  type  has  built  up  in  Europe  powerful 
nations  on  both  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  mountains;  and 
their  influence  has  been  carried  easterly  across  the  steppes,  to 
civilize  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Mongols  in  northern  Asia. 

QUESTIONS. 

Extent,  Shape,  and  Elevations. — Compare  Eurasia  with  North  America 
in  size.  Is  the  outline  of  Eurasia  regular  or  irregular?  Why?  In  what 
particulars  does  it  surpass  all  other  continents? 

Highlands. — Where  does  the  great  Eurasian  axis  begin  and  end?  In 
what  direction  does  it  trend?  Compare  its  direction  with  that  of  the  pri- 
mary axis  of  North  America.  What  mountain-chains  meet  at  the  Pameer? 
Are  they  high  or  low  mountains?  What  and  where  is  the  highest  mountain 
in  the  world?  In  what  two  directions  do  the  branches  of  the  great  Eurasian 
axis  trend  east  of  the  Pameer?  What  islands  form  a  continuation  of  it  to 
the  southeast? 

What  mountains  border  the  pKteau  region  of  central  Asia  on  the  east? 
Compare  their  trend  with  that  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Eurasia.  What 
peninsula  and  islands  form  a  mountain-system  parallel  to  the  Pacific 
coast? 

What  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  on  the  mainland  of  Eurasia?  In  the 
Mediterranean  region?    Elsewhere  in  Eurasia? 

Describe  the  secondary  axis  of  Eurasia.  To  what  system  is  it  analogous 
in  North  America?  To  what  elevation-system  of  North  America  are  the 
Ural  Mountains  analogous?    Why? 

Lowlands. — Where  do  lowland  regions  occur  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Eurasian  axis?  Describe  the  Great  Eurasian  Plain  and  give  its  extent. 
Where  is  it  lowest?    What  elevation-system  crosses  it? 


Drainag^e. — ^What  highland-system  is  the  great  continental  divide  of 
Eurasia?  What  two  principal  slopes  has  it?  Which  is  longer?  Name  five 
drainage-areas  in  Eurasia.  Describe  the  rivers  of  the  Arctic  slope.  Why 
are  they  commercially  unimportant?  What  is  the  character  of  the  rivers  of 
the  eastern  and  southern  slopes?  Are  these  rivers  of  much  or  little  com- 
mercial importance?  Why?  What  is  the  extent  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges? 
Describe  the  rivers  of  the  western  slope.  What  depressions  are  comprised 
in  the  interior  drainage-area? 

Where  are  glaciers  found?  Which  are  best  known?  What  of  lakes?  Of 
glacial  lakes?  Of  salt  lakes?  Compare  Lake  Baikal  with  Lake  Superior 
in  size. 

Climate. — Compare  Eurasia  with  North  America  in  regard  to  zonal 
position.  In  regard  to  the  effect  of  ocean-currents  on  its  climate.  Is  the 
climate  of  Eurasia  in  general  oceanic  or  continental?  What  occasions  the 
difference  between  the  climate  of  Eurasia  and  that  of  North  America? 
Why  is  Siberia  the  coldest  country  in  the  world?  Why  is  India  one  of  the 
hottest?  Where  in  Eurasia  are  the  greatest  extremes  of  temperature? 
Where  the  least?  Why  has  the  northwest  coast  of  Europe  a  relatively  mild 
climate?    Why  has  southern  Europe  a  very  equable  climate? 

Why  has  Europe  abundant  rainfall?  Describe  the  climate  of  the  steppe 
regions  in  regard  to  rain  and  snow.  What  parts  of  Hindoostan  have  heaviest 
rainfall?  Why?  Why  are  Arabia  and  Persia  desert  regiorfs?  Why  are  the 
plateaus  of  central  Asia  desert  regions? 

Productions,  Animals,  and  People. — Compare  the  character  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  Eurasia  and  North  America.  Why,  in  Europe,  is  grain  culti- 
vated farther  north  than  in  North  America?  Wh5%  in  Asia,  not  so  far? 
What  parts  of  Eurasia  are  unproductive?  What  of  the  population  per  square 
mile?  What  plants  of  importance  originated  in  Eurasia?  What  important 
animal  in  the  desert  regions  of  Eurasia?  What  characteristic  animals  are 
found  in  tropical  Eurasia? 

What  tjrpe  of  man  prevails  in  Asia  north  of  the  Eurasian  axis?  South  of 
it?  What  is  the  character  of  Asiatic  civilization  in  the  north?  In  the  south? 
Where  in  Eurasia  did  great  civilizations  originate  in  ancient  times?  Where 
in  Eurasia  has  the  highest  civilization  developed  in  modem  times? 

Thought  Questions. — Why  is  the  coast-line  of  Eurasia  more  irregular  than 
that  of  South  America?     Why  are  earthquakes  frequent  in  Japan? 

Which  rivers  of  Eurasia  are  longest,  those  flowing  into  the  Arctic  or  those 
flowing  south?  Why?  On  which  slope  of  the  Eurasian  axis  are  the  most 
rivers,  the  northern  or  southern?  Which  slope  is  most  abrupt?  On  which 
slope  is  erosion  most  rapjd?  On  which  slope  have  the  greatest  additions 
been  made  to  the  continent? 

Why  is  Norway  warmer  than  the  same  latitude  in  Kamchatka?  Than 
the  same  latitude  in  North  America?  Why  are  the  winters  of  western  Europe 
warmer  than  those  of  the  same  latitudes  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America?  Why  warmer  than  those  of  the  same  latitudes  along  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Eurasia? 

Why  does  the  isotherm  of  32°  vary  through  such  wide  limits  from  July  to 
January  in  central  Asia?  Why  does  it  trend  so  far  north  on  the  coast  of 
Norway? 

POLITICAL    DESCRIPTION.' 

673.  Politically,  Eurasia  may  be  divided,  in  a  general  way,  as 
follows:  (i)  The  Russian  Empire,  in  the  north;  (2)  the  Teutonic 
nations  (German,  ScandinaNnan,  and  English),  in  the  northwest; 
(3)  the  Latin  nations,  in  the  southwest;  (4)  the  Turkish  Empire, 
Arabia,  and  the  Ira'nian  tribes  (Persia  and  Afghanistan),  in  the 
south;  (5)  English  and  other  foreign  possessions,  in  the  southeast; 
and  (6)  the  Mongolian  nations,  in  the  east 

RUSSIAN  BMPIRn. 

674.  Extent. — The  Russian  Empire  occupies  nearl)'  one  sixth 
of  the  land-surface  of  the  earth.  It  has  an  area  about  equal  to  all 
of  North  America;  and  it  has  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
nation,  excepting  Great  Britain  and  its  widely  scattered  posses- 
sions. 

675.  Position. — It  lies  almost  wholly  upon  the  Great  Eurasian 
Plain,  and  is  divided  by  the  Ural  Mountains  into  Russia  in 
Europe  and  Siberia,  or  Asiatic  Russia.  It  is  almost  wholly 
inclosed  by  natural  boundaries — the  Pacific  on  the  east,  the  Arctic 


1.  Before  reading  this  description,  study  omitted  map  questions,  p.  xoS. 


EURASIA. 


Ill 


on  the  north,  the  Baltic  on  the  west,  and  the  mountains  of  the 
Eurasian  axis  on  the  south. 

676.  Surface  and  Drainage.— Russia  in  Europe  is  a  great 
plain  sloping  in  all  directions  from  the  Valdai  Hills,  from  which 
flow  nearly  all  the  rivers  of  Russia.  The  head-waters  of  the 
Russian  rivers  are  connected  by  canals,  so  that  water  communica- 
tion exists  between  the  Black,  Caspian,  and  Baltic  seas.  Siberia 
is  also  a  great  plain.  Its  rivers  drain  from  the  Eurasian  axis  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  excepting  in  the  southwest,  where  the  drainage 
is  into  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas. 

677.  Products  and  People 
of  the  North.— North  of  60°  the 

Russian  Empire  is  the  coldest 
inhabited  portion  of  the  earth, 
and  consists  of  bleak,  unproduct- 
ive tundras,  bordered  by  forests 
on  the  south.  The  principal 
vegetation  of  the  tundras  con- 
sists of  mosses  and  lichen,  called 
"  reindeer  moss."  Foxes,  wolves, 
bears,  and  seals  are  the  principal 
animals. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  north 
are  barbarous  Mongoloid  tribes, 
living  in  small  villages  often 
hundreds  of  miles  apart.  Their 
dress  and  dwellings  are  made 
of  skins;  hunting,  fishing,  and 
reindeer-farming  are  their  usual 
occupations.  Travel  is  accom- 
plished in  sledges  drawn  by  dogs 
or  by  reindeer. 

678.  Products  and  People 
of  the  South. — South  of  50°  are 
the  steppe  regions  of  the  interior 
drainage-areas.  These  steppes 
are  inhabited  by  half-barbarous, 
nomadic*  Tartar  tribes  (Mongo- 
loid type),  engaged  in  raising 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  camels. 
In  the  spring  they  are,  in  general, 
covered  with  a  rich  growth  of 
vegetation,  but  during  the  cold 
winters  and  hot  summers  they  are  barren.  There  are  but  few 
permanent  cities  and  towns.  In  Turkestan,  rugs,  carpets,  and 
camel's-hair  goods  are  manufactured  for  export;  and  salt,  coal,  and 
petroleum  are  obtained  in  abundance  around  the  Caspian  Sea. 

,  679.  The  Middle  and  Most  Productive  Belt  of  the  empire 
lies  between  50°  and  60°.  It  is  adapted  in  soil  and  climate  to  the 
production  of  all  cereals  and  fruits  of  the  Temperate  Zone,  and 
also  contains  rich  mines  and  vast  forests  of  valuable  woods.  Gold, 
silver,  platinum,  diamonds,  malachite,  and  iron  and  lead  ores  are 
found  in  the  Urals;  and  gold,  silver,  and  iron  ores  abound  in  the 
Altai  Mountains. 

680.  Exports. — Wheat,  hemp,  rye,  linen,  wool,  leather,  potash, 
coal,  malachite,  iron,  gold,  and  gems  are  exported.  Russia  iron 
and  leather  are  of  exceptionally  fine  quality;  and  Russia  is  second 
only  to  the  United  States  in  the  quantity  of  wheat  exported. 

1.  The  Volga  is  the  most  important  river  of  Eurasia.  It  is  2,300  miles  long,  and  30  miles 
wide  200  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  basin  contains  10,000.000  people  ;  and  thirty-nine  cities 
and  more  than  one  thousand  villages  and  towns  stand  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  and  its 
tributaries,  and  their  waters  carry  more  steamers  than  those  of  the  Mississippi. 


A  SIBERIAN  CAKATAH, 


681.  Domestic  Commerce.— Although  there  are  many  rail- 
roads in  European  Russia,  much  of  the  domestic  commerce  is 
carried  on  by  means  of  rivers  and  canals.' 

In  Siberia  freighting  is  accomplished  by  means  of  caravans  of 
wagons  upon  the  great  Siberian  route  and  its  branches.  These 
caravans  are  often  a  quarter  or  half  mile  in  length.  One  thousand 
five  hundred  tons  of  Siberian  products  thus  enter  Russia  daily. 

682.  Fairs. — Traffic  is  largely  conducted  at  fairs  held  at  the 
trade-centers.     The  largest  of  these  fairs  is  at  Lower  Novgorod, 

the  great  "fair-city,"  where  some- 
times two  hundred  thousand 
merchants  assemble.' 

683.  Foreign  Commerce  is 

relatively  unimportant,  and  is  car- 
ried on  principally  with  England 
in  the  west  and  China  in  the 
east.  Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific, 
Ri'ga  on  the  Baltic,  Odessa  on 
the  Black,  and  Astrakhan  on 
the  Caspian,  are  the  important 
commercial  sea  -  ports.  Odessa 
is  noted  for  the  great  quantity 
of  wheat  it  exports  annually. 
Kiakhta  (ke  ak'ta)  is  the  princi- 
pal center  of  caravan  trade  with 
China. 

684.  Population,  Govern- 
ment,   and    Religion.  —  The 

population  of  the  Russian  Em- 
pire is  about  100,000,000,  only 
4,000,000  of  whom  live  in  Siberia. 
The  government  is  a  despotism, 
and  the  ruler  is  called  a  Czar. 
A  modification  of  the  Greek 
Church,  with  the  Czar  at  its  head, 
is  the  established  religion;  but 
other  religions  are  tolerated. 

685.  Education  is  backward, 
as  a  large  proportion  of  the 
people  can  neither  read  nor 
write;  but  excellent  educational 
institutions  exist  for  the  wealthy. 

The  lower  classes  were  held  in  bondage  as  serfs  until  they  were 
emancipated  by  Alexander  II.,  in  1861. 

686.  Standing  Army  and  National  Discontent. — The  Rus- 
sian government  maintains  the  largest  standing  army  in  the  world. 
Great  discontent  has  existed  among  some  of  the  Russian  people, 
and  societies  of  "  socialists  "  and  "  nihilists  "  have  made  frequent 
attempts  to  assassinate  the  Czar,  and  estabhsh  a  free  form  of 
government. 

687.  St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  a  city  of  nearly  1,000,000 
inhabitants,  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ne  va',  in  latitude  60° — 
farther  north  than  any  other  large  city  in  the  world.  Its  climate 
is  intensely  cold  in  wfnter,  the  river  being  frozen  for  nearly  half 
the  year.  When  navigation  is  open,  it  is  one  of  the  principal 
centers  of  foreign  commerce.  It  is  noted  for  its  numerous  and 
magnificent  public  buildings. 

2.  The  population  of  the  pity  is  about  100,000,  or  more,  during  September  and  October,  the 
months  of  the  annual  fair;  and  its  stores  frequently  contain  $75,000,000  worth  of  merchandise 
at  that  time.  But  it  is  practically  deserted— with  empty  houses  and  grass-grown  streets— 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  *tiamadu:  wandering. 


112 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


688.  Moscow  is  nearly  as  large  as  St.  Petersburg,  and  was 
formerly  the  capital.  It  contains  many  magnificent  buildings, 
among    which    is 

the  Kremlin,'  and 
is  the  most  im- 
portant railroad 
center  in  Russia. 

689.  Warsaw, 
another  great  rail- 
road center,  was 
the  capital  of  Po- 
land before  it  fell 
under  Russian  do- 
minion. 

690.  Minor 
Cities. — Kiev  is 
the  seat  of  the 
oldest  Russian  uni- 
versity. Omsk, 
Tobolsk,  Irkutsk, 
and  Yakutsk  are  important  centers  on  the  great  Siberian  overland 
route  and  its  branches.  At  Tiumen,  1,700  miles  east  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, is  the  convict  prison  to  which  exiles  to  Siberia  are  first  sent.' 

PERSIA. 

691.  Physical  Features. — Persia 
is  mostly  made  up  of  a  triangular  pla- 
teau, which  has  an  altitude  of  3,000 
or  4,000  feet.  The  mountains  which 
form  the  border  rise  in  several  widely 
separated  peaks  to  a  height  of  nearly 
20,000  feet.  Two  deserts  occupy  large 
areas. 

692.  The  Inhabitants,  numbering 
over  7,000,000,  are  about  one  fourth 
of  pure  Persian  race.  Many  lead  a 
pastoral  life.  The  exports  are  chiefly 
carpets,  shawls,  and  embroidered  silks. 
Considerable  attention  is  given  to  edu- 
cation in  the  cities. 

693.  The  Shah  is  a  despotic  ruler, 
whose  power  is  limited  only  by  the 
precepts  of  the  Koran. 

694.  Tabreez,  the  largest  city,  has 
half  as  many  inhabitants  as  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

ARABIA. 

695.  Physical    Features.  —  The 

Arabian  Peninsula  has  an  area  fully 
one  third  as  great  as  that  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  low  plateau,  whose 
mountain-ranges  rarely  reach  an  alti- 
tude greater  than  5,000  feet  above  the 
ocean.  Some  parts  of  the  countr\' 
produce  herbage  for  pasturage;  and 
there  are  valleys  in  which  coffee,  dates, 

and  figs  are  cultivated.     There  are  no  rivers  in  Arabia.     The 
valleys  through  which  water  occasionally  flows  are  called  wadays, 

1.  A  Kremlin  is  a  fortified  inclosure,  containing  palaces,  churches,  and  other  public 
bnildings.    Several  Russian  cities  have  kremlins,  but  that  at  Moscow  is  the  largest 


THE  KREMLIN. 


shown  on  the  map  by  parallel  dotted  lines.     Rain  seldom  falls, 
except  on  the  mountains,  and  the  heat  is  often  excessive. 

696.  The  Peo- 
ple have  never 
been  united  under 
one  ruler.  The 
head  of  each  tribe 
exercises  patri- 
archal authority. 
A  large  portion  of 
the  inhabitants, 
called  BSd'ou  ins, 
live  in  tents,  and 
wander  about  with 
their  flocks  and 
herds.  The  relig- 
ion of  Mohammed 
prevails.  Turkey 
exercises  author- 
ity over  most  of 
the  Arabian  coast. 


CSOSSING  THB  HIMAUITAS. 


QVMSTIOl^S. 

Russian  Empire. — Extent  compared  with  North  America;  with  Great 
Britain;  with  the  land-surface  of  the  earth.     By  what- mountain-range  is  it 

divided? 

Describe  the  surface  of  Russia  in  Europe. 
From  what  drainage-center  do  its  rivers 
flow?  By  what  means  is  water  communica- 
tion carried  on  between  the  Black  and  Baltic 
seas? 

Describe  the  surface  of  Siberia.  Its  drain- 
age. What  is  the  population  of  the  Russian 
Empire?  WTiat  proportion  of  the  whole  is 
found  in  Siberia? 

Of  Russia  state:  the  character  of  its  gov- 
ernment; title  of  the  ruler;  prevailing  relig- 
ion; condition  of  education.  When  and  by 
whom  were  the  serfs  liberated?  What  of  the 
Russian  army?    Discontent,  how  manifested? 

Climate  of  Russia  north  of  60°.  South  of 
50°.  Between  50°  and  60°.  Products  north 
of  60°.  South  of  50°.  Between  50°  and  60°. 
Inhabitants  north  of  60°.  South  of  50°. 
Face  of  the  country  north  of  60°.  South  of 
50°.  General  character  of  the  middle  belt. 
Minerals  of  the  middle  belt. 

Principal  exports  of  the  empire.  Mode  of 
domestic  commerce  in  European  Russia. 
In  Siberia.  Purpose  of  "  fairs. "  What  city 
is  specially  noted  for  its  fairs. 

Foreign  commerce;  importance;  with  what 
countries;  name  and  give  location  of  the 
principal  commercial  sea-ports.  For  what  is 
Kiakhta  noted? 

Describe  and  give  location  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. State  four  things  about  Moscow. 
Give  the  location  and  importance  of  Warsaw; 
Kiev;  Omsk;  Tobolsk;  Irkutsk;  Yakutsk; 
Tiumen. 

Persia. — Of  physical  features  give:  shape; 
elevation;  desert.  Of  inhabitants  give: 
number;  race;  mode  of  life.  What  are  the 
exports  of  Persia?  What  of  education?  Title 
and  power  of  the  ruler?    Tabreez? 

Arabia. — Of  physical  features  give:  sur- 
rivers.     Name  the   products.     Describe  the 


face;   elevation;   vegetation 

climate.    The  people.     Relation  to  Turkey. 

2.  From  this  point  they  are  compelled  to  walk  the  remainder  of  the  distance — sometimes 
more  than  a,oaa  miles— to  their  place  of  exile. 


WESTERN  EURASIA,  OR  EUROPE. 


113 


WESTERN 


EURASIA, 


OR  EUROPE 


698.  Surface  and 
Extent.  —  More  than 
two  thirds  of  Europe  is 
lowland,  less  than  600 
feet  above  the  ocean. 
North  of  the  latitude  of 
London  and  east  of  the 
meridian  of  Constanti- 
nople it  is  all  a  low  plain, 
except  the  Scandinavian, 
Uralian,  and  Caucasian 
highlands  along  its  bor- 
der, and  the  Valdai 
Hills  in  the  center.  These  hills,  scarcely  1,500  feet  in  height,  form 
the  highest  portion  of  the  water-parting  which  extends  from  the 
Ural  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  divides  the  great  plain  into 
unequal  slopes.  The  lowest  land  in  Europe  is  around  the  north 
end  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  a  large  area  is  below  the  ocean-level. 
Near  this  lowland  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  the  highest  in  Europe, 
rise  to  an  altitude  of  over  18,000  feet. 

Europe  is  a   little  larger   than    the  United   States,    including 
Alaska. 


P'ARTMENTS  'OF  THrQUEENS-/ftfHAMBRA 


699.  Climate. — Since  Europe  has  an  extent  of  35°  in  latitude, 
and  reaches  inland  2,000  miles,  it  is  evident  that  its  widely  sepa- 
rated countries  differ  greatly  in  climate.  The  winter  climate  of 
Gibraltar,  which  is  similar  to  that  of  central  California,  contrasts 
strongly  with  that  of  Hammerfest,  where  for  eight  weeks  the  sun 
does  not  rise.  The  reindeer  of  Lapland  are  drawing  sledges  or 
digging  in  the  snow  for  lichens  while  the  donkeys  in  Italy  are 
carrying  oranges  just  plucked  from  the  trees.  The  climate  of 
England  is  mild  and  equable,  while  that  of  all  Europe  east  of  the 
Baltic  is  subject  to  great  extremes.  The  Azof  Sea  is  ice-bound 
while  the  Plains  of  L8m  bar  dy,  in  the  same  latitude,  are  scarcely 
frosty.  The  average  climate  of  Europe  is  much  warmer  than  that 
of  corresponding  latitudes  in  America  and  Asia.  This  is  chiefly 
due  to  the  warm  waters  of  the.  Gulf-Stream,  which  flow  along  the 
northwestern  coast;  but,  in  part,  also,  to  the  large  seas  and  gulfs 
that  penetrate  the  interior,  carrying  an  oceanic  climate. 

700.  The  People  of  Europe  may  be  divided  into  three  groups 
nearly  equal  in  numbers,  but  inhabiting  unequal  territories.  The 
mass  of  the  people  in  each  group  are  of  closely  related  races  and 
speak  similar  languages. 

One  group,  which  may  be  called  the  Graeco- Romanic,  or  Latin, 
occupies  nearly  all  the  country  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Strait 


WESTERN    EURASIA,    OR    EUROPE. 


115 


MAP    QUESTIONS. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Outline. — Beginning  at  Kara  Sea  on  the  north,  name  and  give  the  location 
of  all  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  on  the  coast.  Beginning  with  Kola  on  the  north, 
name  and  give  the  location  of  all  peninsulas  on  the  coast,  and  name  the 
waters  that  border  them.  Give  the  location  of  the  following  straits:  Skag'er 
Rack;  C5t'tegat;  Dover;  Gibraltar;  Otranto;  Dardanelles' (nelz');  BSs'po  rus. 
Give  the  location  of  the  following  capes:  North  Cape;  Land's  End; 
Fin  is  terre';  St.  Vincent;  Matapan. 

Surface. — Which  part  of  Europe  is 
mountainous?  What  is  the  general 
character  of  the  surface  of  the  north- 
east? The  following  mountain-ranges 
separate  the  Mediterranean  slope  from 
the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  slopes — name 
them  in  their  order,  beginning  with 
the  most  westerly:  Carpathian;  Alps; 
Balkan;  Cevennes;  Caucasus;  Canta- 
brian;  Pyrenees.  What  mountain- 
range  extends  through  the  Scandina- 
vian Peninsula?  In  what  two  general 
directions  do  the  rivers  of  the  great 
Russian  plain  flow?  What  hills  form 
the  drainage-center  for  this  region? 

Miscellaneous  Location. — Find  and 
give  the  location  of  the  following: 
Isle  of  Rhodes;  London;  Constanti- 
nople; Hammerfest;  Caspian  Sea; 
Gib  rgl'ter;  Sea  of  Azof.  ""'RTf 

Omit  the  following  until  taking  up  the  description  of  the  Scandinavian 
Countries: 

Location  of  Countries. — Beginning  with  Portugal,  name,  in  their  order, 
all  countries  of  Europe  lying  wholly  west  of  the  meridian  of  30°  east  longi- 
tude.    What  country  of  Europe  lies  almost  wholly  east  of  this  meridian? 

Bound  Russia  in  Europe.  Sweden  and  Norway.  Denmark.  Between 
what  parallels  of  latitude  are  Sweden  and  Norway? 


Surface  and  Drainage  of  Sweden  and  Norway. — What  mountain-range 
separates  Sweden  from  Norway?  On  which  side  of  this  range  are  most  of 
its  rivers?    Into  what  waters  do  they  flow? 

Cities. — Name  and  give  the  location  of  the  capital  of  Norway.  Of  Sweden. 
Of  Denmark.  Of  Russia.  Find  and  give  the  location  of:  Moscow;  Lower 
Novgorod;  Odessa;  SSbasto'pol;  Kiev. 

Miscellaneous. — Compare  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  (occupied  by  Nor- 
way and  Sweden)  with  the  Spanish  Peninsula  in  size  and  shape.  Compare 
Greece  and  Denmark.     Compare  Ireland  and  Iceland.     Notice  the  latitude 

of  St.  Petersburg,  Stockholm,  and 
Christiania.  Which  do  you  think  has 
the  warmest  winter  ?  Which  the 
greatest  summer  heat?  Why?  Com- 
pare the  areas  of  Greece  and  Scotland. 
Of  England  and  Portugal.  How  does 
Russia  compare  in  extent  with  the  rest 
of  Europe?  Study  the  positions  and 
relative  sizes  of  the  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean.  [Malta  and  Cyprus 
belong  to  Great  Britain.  The  colors 
indicate  the  government  of  the  other 
islands.] 

Look  up  the  history  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. What  countries  have  no  sea- 
ports? What  countries  of  Europe  do 
not  extend  as  far  south  as  the  northern 
boundary  of  Minnesota?  What  cities 
have  the  same  latitude  as  Glasgow? 
Which  is  larger,  Glasgow  or  Edin- 
CAPE.  burgh?    Notice  where  the  latitude  of 

Hammerfest  crosses  North  America. 
What  is  the  latitude  of  the  most  northern  railway?    Has  any  other  country 
in  the  world  a  railway  so  far  north?    Which  has  the  most  railway  in  propor- 
tion to  area,  France  or  Spain? 

Globe  Exercises. — With  your  globe-measure  find  the  point  in  Europe 
nearest  to  your  home.  Which  is  nearer,  Hammerfest  or  Lisbon?  How  far 
is  it  to  Ireland?  To  Rome?  What  American  port  is  nearest  the  direct  route 
from  your  home  to  Lisbon? 


of  Dover  to  the  Isle  of  Rhodes.  The  Roumanians,  though  in  the 
southeast,  belong  to  the  Latin  group.  Draw  a  line  from  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  North  Cape;  the  Teutonic  race.s — Germans, 
Scandinavians,  and  English — will  be  on  the  northwest,  and  the 
Slavonic  on  the  southeast.  Probably  nearly  one  sixth  of  the 
people  in  the  countries  of  the  Slavonic  group  are  Mongolians. 
Altogether  there  are  about  330,000,000  inhabitants  of  Europe. 

QUMSTIONS. 

Outline. — How  does  the  outline  of  Europe  compare  with  that  of  other  grand 
divisions?    What  natural  features  make  the  outline  of  a  country  irregular? 

Surface  and  Extent. — What  proportion  of  Europe  is  lowland?  What  is 
the  elevation  of  this  lowland?  What  part  of  Europe  is  a  continuous  low 
plain?  By  what  mountains  bordered?  What  hills  in  the  center?  How  high 
are  they?  Where  is  the  lowest  land  in  Europe?  What  are  the  highest 
mountains  in  Europe?  The  next  highest?  What  is  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Alps?     How  does  Europe  compare  in  size  with  the  United  States? 

Climate. — Is  the  climate  of  Europe  alike  throughout  its  extent?  Why? 
Why  the  difference  in  climate  between  Gibraltar  and  Hammerfest?  Between 
Lapland  and  Italy?  Between  England  and  the  country  east  of  the  Baltic? 
Between  the  Sea  of  Azof  and  the  Plains  of  Lombardy?  How  does  the 
climate  of  Europe  compare  with  that  of  corresponding  latitudes  in  America 
and  Asia?    Why? 

People. — Into  how  many  groups  may  the  people  of  Europe  be  divided 
according  to  race  and  language?  What  part  of  Europe  does  the  Latin  race 
occupy?  The  Teutonic?  The  Slavonic?  What  nations  make  up  the  Teu- 
tonic group?  What  proportion  of  the  people  in  the  Slavonic  group  are 
Mongolians?  Look  on  the  map  and  tell  what  nations  belong  to  the  Latin 
group.    What  to  the  Slavonic  group.    To  what  group  does  Roumania  belong? 


POLITICAL  DESCRIPTION.' 

THS  SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES. 

701 .  Character  of  the  Scandinavians. — The  large  peninsula 
west  of  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  small  Peninsula  of  Jutland  are 
inhabited  by  Scandinavians,  who  are  noted  for  their  industry  and 
thrift.  The  public  schools  are  excellent.  The  mass  of  the  people 
belong  to  the  Lutheran  Protestant  Church. 

702.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Sweden  and  Norway  occu- 
pies the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  which  is  about  twice  as  large  as 
California,  and  has  about  five  times  as  many  inhabitants. 

Norway  is  the  narrow  western  slope  of  the  Scandinavian  Mounts 
ains.  Numerous  deep,  narrow  bays,  called  fiords,  indent  the 
precipitous  coast,  which  is  fringed  with  innumerable  rocky  islands. 
Much  of  the  country  is  forest-covered.  Lakes  are  numerous. 
Ship-building  and  fishing  are  the  chief  industries. 

703.  Sweden  has  mostly  a  flat  or  undulating  surface,  studded 
with  innumerable  lakes  and  ponds,  which  cover  nearly  a  tenth  of 
its  surface.  The  low,  sandy  shore  is  everywhere  skirted  by  islands. 
Forests  cover  the  northern  country;  rich  mines  of  iron  and  other 
metals  are  worked  in  the  central  part,  and  in  the  south  fertile  farms 
produce  abundant  crops  of  cereals,  grass,  and  roots. 

704.  Lapland. — The  northern  part  of  Norway,  with  the  adjacent 
part  of  Russia,  is  often  called  Lapland.  The  natives  are  a  small 
race,  who  live  by  raising  reindeer. 


1.  Bctora  rtadlng  this  description,  study  omitted  map  questions  above. 


116 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


705.  The  Kingdom  of  Denmark  occupies  part  of  the  low 
Jutland  Peninsula  and  adjacent  islands,  which  form  a  third  of  her 
area.  The  western  coast  is  a  suc- 
cession of  drifting  sand-hills  and 
salt-marshes,  but  the  remainder 
of  the  peninsula  and  the  islands 
are  fertile.  Numerous  inlets  from 
the  Baltic  Sea  make  good  water- 
ways and  harbors.  Grain,  cheese, 
butter,  and  thoroughbred  cattle 
are  exported.  The  land  is  in 
small  lots  and  is  mostly  owned 
by  those  who  cultivate  it. 

Iceland,  the  Fa'roe  Islands, 
and  a  colony  in  Greenland  are 
under  the  Danish  rule. 

706.  Cities. —  Christiania  has 
about  130,000  inhabitants  and 
Stockholm  has  about  200,000. 

Copenhagen  is  an  important 
commercial  city,  situated  on  the 
island  called  Zealand.  It  has 
about  275,000  inhabitants. 

Hammerfest,  the  most  northern  town  in  the  world,  has  a  popu- 
lation of  over  1,500  fishermen.    Steamers  make  regular  trips  to 


HAMMERFEST 


.  this  port,  which  is  never  ice-bound,  though  in  midwinter  for  two 
months  the  sun  does  not  rise  and  the  days  are  but  a  succession  of 

slowly  increasing  dawns,  blend- 
ing at  noon  with  lingering 
twilights. 

QUESTIONS. 

The  Scandinavian  Countries. — Of 

the  Scandinavians  tell:  where  they 
live;  their  religion;  schools.  What 
two  kingdoms  constitute  the  Scandi- 
navian governments?  What  penin- 
sula is  occupied  by  the  first?  By  the 
second?  Compare  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsula  with  California  in  size.  In 
population.  Of  Norway  give:  posi- 
tion; character  of  coast-line;  indus- 
tries. Of  Sweden  give :  surface; 
mineral  resources;  agricultural  re- 
sources. What  is  the  character  of  the 
people  of  Lapland? 

What  proportion  of  Denmark  con- 
sists of  islands?    Name  the  exports. 

Name  the  islands  that  are  under 
Spanish  rule.  What  city  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries  is  situated  on  an 
island?     How  does  the  population  of 

each  of  the  large  Scandinavian  cities  compare  with  that  of  San  Francisco? 

Name  and  describe  the  most  northern  town  in  the  world. 


MAP    QUESTIONS. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Location  and  Extent. — In  what  part  of  Europe  are  the  British  Isles  sit- 
uated? Between  what  parallels  of  latitude?  Between  what  meridians  of 
longitude?  Measured  by  the  scale,  are  these  islands  longer  from  north  to 
south  or  from  east  to  west?  Measured  in  degrees  by  parallels  and  merid- 
ians, in  which  direction  are  they  longer?  Why  the  difference?  Name  the 
waters  that  surround  them,  beginning  with  the  North  Sea.  Name  the 
waters  that  separate  them  from  the  mainland  of  Europe,  and  tell  from  what 
countries  they  separate  them. 

Mountains. — What  mountains  in  Ireland?  What  name  is  given  to  the 
mountains  that  separate  England  from  Scotland?  What  name  is  given  the 
mountains  in  the  north  of  Scotland?    Where  is  Ben  NSv'is? 

Rivers. — Describe  the  Thames  (tgmz).  The  Severn.  The  A'von.  The 
Trent     The  Clyde.    The  Tweed.    The  Shannon. 


Cities. — Give  the  location  of  the  following  cities:  London;  Liverpool; 
Manchester;  SheflBeld;  Birmingham;  Kidderminster;  Newcastle;  Glasgow; 
Edinburgh  (ed'in  biir  riih);  Dublin;  Belfast;  Queenstown;  Cork. 

Miscellaneous. — Measure  the  extreme  length  of  the  largest  island.  Where 
are  the  Shetland  Islands?  Of  which  country  of  the  British  Isles  are  they  a 
part?  The  Orkney  Islands?  The  Isle  of  Man?  What  domestic  animals 
peculiar  to  these  islands?  Do  you  know  why  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are 
famous?  How  long  do  you  think  it  would  take  a  steamboat  to  go  from  Cork 
to  Bristol?  From  Dover  to  Cai'ais?  "  The  Wash  "  is  what  natural  division 
of  water?  What  is  a  firth?  What  are  the  capes  of  these  islands  generally 
called?  What  are  the  bays  of  Scotland  called?  Which  is  the  farther  north, 
the  extreme  western  part  of  Alaska  or  the  New  Hgb'ri  dej?  Make  a  list,  in 
order,  of  all  the  sea-port  towns  of  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
There  are  in  England  484  people  for  each  square  mile  of  its  surface:  Sup- 
pose California  to  be  as  densely  populated,  how  many  inhabitants  would  it 
contain?  Compare  the  latitude  of  Cork  with  that  of  Sacramento.  The 
latitude  of  London  with  that  of  San  Francisco. 


BRITISH  ISLES.^ 


DESCRIPTION. 

707.  Commanding  Importance  of  the  British  Isles. — These 
islands  are  in  the  center  of  the  land  hemisphere.  London,  their 
capital,  is  the  metropolis  of  the  world.  Their  mines  yield  annually 
more  coal,  tin,  and  iron  than  those  of  any  other  countrj'.  Their 
manufactories  produce  more  goods  and  of  greater  variety  than 
those  of  other  countries.  More  vessels  carrying  merchandise  and 
passengers  sail  under  the  British  flag  than  under  any  other. 
These  islanders  and  their  descendants  dominate  more  of  the  earth's 
surface  than  any  other  people.  More  newspapers  are  printed  in 
Engli.sh  than  in  any  other  language.  The  sun  is  always  shining 
upon  some  large  population  of  English-speaking  people. 

1.  Tba  Brltlab  Islas   consist  of  the  Island  of  Great  Britain   (Scotland,  England,  and 
Wales),  together  with  Ireland,  the  Hebrides,  Orkney,  and  Shetland  islands,  the  Isle  of 


708.  Physical  Characteristics. — Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
together  have  an  area  about  four  fifths  as  great  as  that  of  Cali- 
fornia. Their  coasts  are  indented  by  numerous  bays  which  make 
good  harbors.  The  mountains  shown  on  the  map  are  mostly 
ranges  of  hills  only  a  few  hundred  feet  in  height.  In  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  the  southern  part  of  Ireland  there  are  a  few  mount- 
ains over  3,000  feet  in  height.  Ben  Nevis,  the  loftiest  peak,  has 
an  altitude  of  over  4,000  feet. 

The  numerous  streams  flow  through  beautiful  valleys  and  furnish 
abundant  water-power.  Scotland  and  Ireland  abound  in  lakes. 
Peat*  bogs  cover  more  than  one  tenth  of  Ireland. 

709.  Climate,    Vegetation,  and    Animals. — These  islands 

Man,  and  more  than  5,000  smaller  islands  and  rocky  projections  off  the  west  coast  of 
Qorope.  */tat:  a  compact  turf  used  for  fiiel  when  dried. 


t..]}.,itKnM,Xat:r^ 


118 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  Gulf-Stream.  In  Cork  the  winter  is 
no  colder  than  in  Sacramento,  but  more  rain  falls.  London  has 
more  fog,  less  rain,  and  is  a  trifle  colder  in  winter  than  San  Fran- 
cisco. Though  the  summers  are  too  cool  for  Indian  com  and 
some  fruits,  both  ag^culture  and  horticulture  have  been  brought 
to  great  perfection.  Of  native  animals  the  fox,  hare,  and  rabbit 
are  the  principal. 

710.  The  People  of  the  British  Isles  are  descendants  of 
Celtic  tribes,  Romans,  Saxons,  An  gles,  and  Normans.  The 
Romans  from  southern  Europe,  the  Germanic  tribes — Angles  and 
Saxons — from  middle  Europe,  and  the  Scandinavians  from  north- 
em  Europe,  in  turn  conquered  and  possessed  for  many  years 
at  a  time  that  portion  of  Great  Britain  now  called  England.  The 
Celtic  tribes  of  England  were  driven  back  into  the  mountains  of 
Wales  and  Scotland,  but  have  remained  the  chief  population  of 
Ireland,  in  many  parts 
of  which  a  considerable 
number  of  the  people 
still  speak  a  branch  of 
the  Celtic  language. 

711.  Government. — 
The  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, with  its  dependen- 
cies— Canada,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  India,  etc. 
— is  called  the  British 
Empire.  The  British 
Government  is  a  consti- 
tutional monarchy.  The 
laws  are  made  by  a  Par- 
liament, which  is  com- 
posed of  the  House  of 
I<ords,  whose  members 
inherit  their  seats;  and 
the  House  of  Commons, 
chosen  by  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  executive 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  small  body  of  men,  called  the  Ministry, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  sovereign.  Political  parties  are  active 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  as  in  the  United  States,  and  whenever  at 
an  election  the  party  opposed  to  the  Ministry  elects  a  majority  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  the  Ministry  resigns,  and  the  sovereign 
appoints  a  new  Ministry  from  members  of  the  successful  party. 

712.  England  not  only  manufactures  the  iron,  tin,  copper,  and 
lead  of  her  mines  for  export,  but  she  imports  cotton,  wool,  and  many 
other  kinds  of  raw  material,  which  her  coal  and  water-power  enable 
her  cheaply  to  manufacture.  Though  her  fields  are  fertile  and  well 
cultivated,  she  cannot  produce  food  enough  for  home  consumption; 
hence  wheat,  meats,  and  other  staple  food  products  are  imported, 
along  with  the  produce  of  warmer  climates.  Some  of  these 
imported  raw  food  materials  are  exported  in  the  form  of  potted, 
pickled,  or  canned  goods.  Fish,  particularly  smoked  herring  and 
salt  mackerel,  are  exported.  Of  dairy  products  fine  cheeses  are 
largely  exported. 

Much  attention  is  given  to  the  raising  of  fine  breeds  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  Many  of  these  have  been  imported  into  the 
United  States  to  improve  the  stock  of  this  country-. 

England  has  produced  most  of  the  noted  scholars  of  modem 
times.  The  two  great  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have, 
for  more  than  one  thousand  years,  been  the  chief  centers  of  class- 


A  I.ONDON  CAB-STAXD. 


ical  learning  in  the  world.    England  and  Wales  have  a  population 
of  about  29,000,006. 

713.  Scotland  contains  about  4,000,000  inhabitants,  half  of 
whom  live  in  the  lowlands  south  of  Edinburgh,  where  the  chief 
occupation  is  manufacturing.  Scotch  linens  and  woolens  are 
famous.     Sheep- farming  is  the  great  specialty  of  Scotch  husbandry. 

714.  Ireland  is  about  one  fifth  as  large  as  California.  Stock- 
raising  is  the  leading  industrj'.  Potatoes,  oats,  forage  plants,*  and 
flax  are  the  chief  field  products.  In  1840  the  population  was  over 
8,000,000.  A  failure  of  the  potato  crop  the  following  year  caused 
the  beginning  of  an  emigration  to  America  which  has  in  fifty  j^ears 
reduced  the  population  to  less  than  5,000,000. 

715.  Cities.'  —  London,  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the 
world,  has  about  4,500,000  inhabitants.  It  covers  about  120 
square  miles,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Thames  River. 

Liverpool  is  the  next 
most  important  city. 
Manchester  manufact- 
ures more  cotton  than 
any  other  citj*.  Sheffield 
is  noted  for  cutlery,  Bir- 
mingham for  hardware, 
and  Kidderminster  for 
carpets.-  Newcastle  is  a 
great  coal  port. 

Glasgow,  the  chief  city 
of  Scotland,  has  over 
600,000  inhabitants.  It 
is  famous  for  the  iron 
steamships  which  are 
built  on  the  Clyde,  and  its 
cotton  and  woolen  mills. 
Edinburgh  is  the  seat 
of  the  Scottish  Supreme 
Court,  and  is  an  educa- 
tional and  literarj'  center. 

Dubhn,  the  largest  city  in  Ireland,  has  about  350,000  inhabit- 
ants. 

Belfast  manufactures  more  linen  than  any  other  city  in  the  world. 

Queenstown  is  the  chief  port  of  departure  for  emigrants. 

QUESTIONS. 

Name  seven  of  the  most  important  cities  of  England  and  tell  for  what  each 
is  noted.  Name  the  two  most  important  cities  of  Scotland  and  tell  why 
they  are  important.  The  three  most  important  cities  of  Ireland  and  the 
principal  distinction  of  each. 

Name  six  particulars  in  which  the  British  Isles  surpass  any  other  country 
of  the  globe.  Can  you  tell  in  what  three  countries  outside  of  the  British 
Isles  the  newspapers  are  printed  chiefly  in  English?  How  does  it  happen 
that  the  sun  always  shines  on  large  bodies  of  English-speaking  people? 

What  is  meant  by  Great  Britain?  How  do  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
compare  in  size  with  California?  To  what  pursuit  does  the  coast-line  of 
these  islands  adapt  them?  Describe  their  mountains.  To  what  pursuit  do 
the  streams  of  these  islands  adapt  them? 

Compare  the  climate  of  Cork  with  that  of  Sacramento.  The  climate  of 
London  with  that  of  San  Francisco.     Describe  the  summers. 

From  whom  are  the  people  of  the  British  Isles  descended? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  British  Government?  In  what  respect  is  the 
administration  of  the  government  of  Great  Britain  like  that  of  the  United 
States?    What  are  the  principal  dependencies  of  Great  Britain? 

Name  the  exports  of  England.     Purposes  of  import. 

Of  Scotland  state:  distribution  of  population;  chief  occupation  in  the 
lowlands;  in  the  highlands.  Of  Ireland  state:  size  compared  with  Cali- 
fornia; the  leading  industry;  chief  field  products. 


1.  Bafore  reading  the  description  of  cities,  review  on  tbe  map  their  sitnaUon. 


*/araii  pUuUv.  plants  nied  as  food  for  horses  and  catUe. 


SOUTHWESTERN    EUROPE. 


119 


SOUTHWESTERN  EUROPE. 


DESCRIPTION. 
THM  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

716.  Extent  and  Population. — The  German  Empire -is  about 
as  large  as  California  with  that  portion  of  Oregon  lying  west  of  the 
i2oth  meridian.  The  German  population  of  Europe  in  1890  was 
about  equal  to  the  total  population  of  the  United  States. 
Of  these  the  German  Empire  contained  47,000,000. 

71 7.  Importance. — Germany  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant countries  of  the  world.  No  other  country  has 
greater  political  influence.  Its  educational  system  is 
not  surpassed.  In  manufactures  and  commerce  it  is 
one  of  the  four  leading  nations.  In  military  strength 
it  is  one  of  the  first  powers  in  Europe.  Over  3,000,000 
Germans  have  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  Ger- 
mans form  a  part  of  the  population  in  all  new  countries.' 

718.  Productions. — Among  the  productions  of  Ger- 
many are  stock,  grain,  fruit,  wine,  and  sugar  (from  the 
sugar-beet).  There  are  also  productive  mines  of  coal, 
iron,  zinc,  and  lead.  In  the  manufacture  of  steel 
Germany  surpasses  all  other  countries. 

719.  Cities. — Berlin,  the  capital,  is,  in  size,  the  third 

city  in  Europe,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  learning  in  the 
world.  Hamburg  has  more  commerce  with  the  United  States  than 
any  other  continental  European  city.  Frankfort-on-the-Main  is, 
next  to  I^ondon,  the  greatest  money  market  in  the  world. 


been  built  to  protect  the  land  against  inundation.  With  an  area 
less  than  that  of  Denmark,  Holland  has  a  population  twice  as  great. 
721.  Commerce. — The  Dutch  carry  on  an  extensive  commerce. 
Their  foreign  possessions — the  Dutch  East  Indies,  Guiana,  and 
other  colonies — have  an  area  of  over  700,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  more  than-28,ooo,c)oo. 


ROTTERDAM. 


THE  NETHERLANDS. 

720.  Physical  Features  and  Population. — The  Netherlands, 
or  the  Kingdom  of  Holland,  is  a  low  country — much  of  it  lower 
than  the  sea  at  high  tide.     Over  1,500  miles  of  embankments  have 

1.  The  Empire  of  Germany  comprises  four  kingdoms,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  most  im- 
portant, six  Grand  Duchies,  five  Duchies,  seven  Principalities,  three  Free  Cities,  and  one 
Territory.    The  King  of  Prussia  is  the  Emperor. 


EHRENBREITSTEIN.* 

722.  Cities. — Amsterdam,  the  chief  city,  is  larger  than  San 
Francisco.  Its  streets,  like  those  of  Venice,  are  many  of  them 
water-ways.  Rotterdam  also  has  street  canals.  The  principal 
buildings  are  along  the  chief  canals. 

BEJyGIVM. 

723.  People  and  Products. — This  small 
kingdom  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  in 
Europe,  and  it  is  the  most  densely  populated. 
With  an  area  of  less  than  12,000  square  miles, 
it  has  a  population  of  nearly  6,000,000.  The 
land  is  mostly  divided  into  small  holdings. 
The  Belgians  are  of  two  races,  the  Dutch  and 
French.  French  is  the  language  of  the  schools 
and  the  upper  classes.  The  mines  of  coal  and 
iron  are  the  most  productive  on  the  continent. 

724.  Cities. — Brussels,  the  capital  and  chief 
city,  is  larger  than  San  Francisco.  It  is 
famous  for  the  manufactirre  of  fine  laces, 
jewelry,  and  musical  instruments.  Antwerp 
has  a  fine  harbor  and  extensive  commerce. 
It  has  a  picture-gallery  containing  some  of 
the  most  famous  paintings  in  the  world. 

SWITZERLAND. 

725.  Natural  Features  and  Govern- 
ment.— The  grand  and  beautiful  scenery  of 
Switzerland  has  long  attracted  many  tourists. 
It  is  the  most  mountainous  country  of  Europe. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Alps,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Mont  Blanc,  are  within  or  on  its  boundary.  Many 
square  miles  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  from  which  flow 
the  famous  Alpine  glaciers.  More  than  two  thirds  of  the  surface 
is  productive  of  forests  or  pasturage.     Switzerland  is  a  confed- 

2.  Ehrenbreitstein  is  famous  for  its  fortress,  built  by  the  Romans,  but  since  greatly 
enlarged  and  strengthened.  This  fortress  will  garrison  100,000  men,  and  provisions  suffi- 
cient for  S,ooo  men  for  ten  years  may  be  stored  in  its  magazines. 


SOUTHWESTERN    EUROPE. 


121 


MAP    QUESTIONS. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Location  of  Countries. — Beginning  with  Portugal,  bound  each  of  the 
countries  of  Southwestern  Europe — naming  always  any  river  or  mountain- 
range  that  separates  one  country  from  another.  Which  country  is  farthest 
north?    Which  farthest  south?    Which  farthest  east?    Which  farthest  west? 

Mountains. — Are  Spain  and  Portugal  mountainous  or  level  countries? 
What  ranges  of  mountains  are  a  continuation  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  west? 
Name  the  three  principal  mountain-ranges  of  France.  Which  of  them  sep- 
arates France  from  other  countries?  From  what  countries?  What  mountain- 
range  extends  through  Italy?  What  celebrated  mountains  in  Switzerland? 
Where  is  Mont  Blanc  (mong  bl6ng')?  Where  are  the  Carpathian  Mountains? 
The  Bal  kan'  Mountains? 

Rivers. — In  what  mountains  have  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Danube 
their  sources?    Describe  each  of  these  rivers  and  tell  through  what  countries 


they  flow.   What  are  the  longest  two  rivers  of  Spain  and  Portugal?    Describe 
them.     Describe  the  Sgme.     The  Loire(lwar).     The  Ga  zonae'.    The  Elbe. 

Cities. — Beginning  with  Portugal,  name  and  give  location  of  all  the  capital 
cities  of  the  countries  of  Southwestern  Europe,  and  tell  of  what  country 
each  is  the  capital.  In  the  same  way  name  and  give  the  location  of  the 
largest  cities.  Find  and  give  the  location  of  the  following  cities:  Hamburg; 
Frankfort-on-the-Main;  Rotterdam;  Antwerp;  Bii'da-Pest/j;  Trieste';  Lyons; 
Marseilles'(salz);  B6rdeaux'(do);  Pa  tras'.  Zan'te  and  Corfu  are  on  islands 
of  the  same  name — where  are  the  islands? 

Miscellaneous  Exercises. — ^What  notable  places  are  on  or  near  the  36th 
parallel?  What  two  cities  nearest  the  52d  parallel?  Which  is  the  farther 
east,  Glasgow  or  Madrid?  What  French  river  is  merely  an  estuary  or  bay? 
In  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  find  the  provinces  of  Tyrol,  Bohemia, 
and  Hungary.  Why  are  mountains  and  rivers  so  often  boundaries  between 
different  nations? 


erated  republic  of  twenty-two  cantons,  with  a  government  similar 
to  that  of  the  United  States. 

726.  Inhabitants  and  Occupations. — Switzerland  has  a  large 
population  for  so  rugged  a  country.  Its  area  of  about  16,000 
square  miles  supports  nearly  3,000,000  people.  More  than  two 
thirds  speak  German.  Those  near  the  French  border  speak 
French,  and  a  few  speak  Italian.  Most  of  the  heads  of  families 
own  the  land  they  cultivate  or  live  upon.  Dairying  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  country  people.  Geneva,  the  largest  city,  is 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  watches  and  jewelry. 

727.  Education  is  more  general  among  all  classes  than  in  any 
other  European  country. 

728.  Roads. — No  other  mountainous  country  has  so  many  good 
roads.  Its  railway  system  connects  with  that  of  Italy  by  the  St. 
Gothard  Tunnel,  which  is  over  nine  miles  in  length — the  longest 
in  the  world. 


AN  ALPINE  VILLAGE. 


THB  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  MONARCHY. 

729.  Extent  and  Surface. — The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy 
has  an  area  nearly  equal  to  that  of  California  and  Nevada  taken 

1.  Brenner  Pass  is  a  famous  depression  in  the  Tyrolese  Alps,  in  western  Austria,  which 
has  long  served  as  the  chief  commercial  route  between  Germany  and  Italy.  The  railway 
built  across  it  by  the  Austrian  Government  passes  through  two  of  the  longest  tunnels  in 
the  world. 


together.  Its  surface  is  much  diversified.  The  western  part,  called 
Tyr'ol,  has  the  loftiest  mountains.  The  Carpathians  nearly  inclose 
the  Plain  of    Hungary.      On  the  north,  Bohemia  is  shut  in  by 


BRENNER  PASS.^ 


mountains.      The   Danube   River  receives  the  drainage  of   two 
thirds  of  the  empire.* 

730.  Productions. — The  Austrian  mines  are  among  the  richest 
in  Europe,  producing  nearly  all  the  useful  metals  and  an  abundance 
of  coal.  The  Idria  quicksilver  mine  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the 
world.  The  treeless  Plain  of  Hungary  is  a  wheat  -  producing 
region.  About  500,000,000  gallons  of  wine  are  annually  produced. 
Beet-root  sugar  is  an  important  production.  The  pasturage  of 
the  mountain  valleys  makes  stock-raising  a  leading  industry. 

731.  Cities. — Vienna,  the  capital,  is  a  great  manufacturing  city, 
noted  especially  for  silk -velvets,  shawls,  porcelain,  and  musical 
instruments.  Its  population  is  over  1,230,000.  Buda-Pesth  is  the 
Hungarian  capital.  Buda  is  on  the  north  and  Pesth  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Danube.     Trieste  is  the  great  ica-port  of  the  empire. 

FRANCS. 

732.  Extent  and  Surface. — The  Republic  of  France  has  an 
area  two  thirds  that  of  California,  or  a  little  less  than  that  of 
Germany,  whose  population  is  a  foirth  greater.  Most  of  France 
is  a  low,  undulating,  or  hilly  corntry.     The  highest  mountains 

2.  The  people  are  of  several  races,  speaking  many  dialects.  In  the  entire  population  of 
about  40,000,000  there  are  about  9,000,000  Germans,  nearly  6,000,000  Poles,  many  Jews  and 
lulians,  the  Hungarians  or   Magyars   (mftd'jor)— allied  to    Mongolians— and  Slavonic 


122 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


inclose  the  Valley  of  the  Rhone,  which  is  the  most  rapid  of  its 
four  chief  rivers. 

733.  Agricultural  Products. — The  Garonne  Valley  is  famous 
for  its  claret  wine  and  prunes.  Burgundy  and  champagne  are 
noted  wines  produced  in  the  mountains  and  hills  of  the  upper 
Rhone  and  the  sources  of  the  Seine.  Northern  France  produces 
considerable  grain  and  beets,  the  latter  being  used  to  make  sugar 
and  alcohol.  The  farms  are  mostly  small,  and  owned  by  those 
who  cultivate  them.  It  is  estimated  that  about  5,000,000  of  the 
land-owners  have  only  five  or  six  acres  each. 

734.  Minerals  and  Manufactures. — France  has  considerable 
mineral  wealth.  Coal,  iron,  lead,  marble,  alabaster,  and  salt  are 
especially  abundant.  The  French  excel  in  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain,  china,  glass-ware,  plate-glass,  rich  and  delicate  fabrics, 
artificial  flowers,  fancy  goods,  and  jewelry. 

735.  Roads. — There  are  more 
good  wagon-roads  in  France,  in 
proportion  to  her  area,  than  in 
any  other  country. 

736.  Education  and  Relig- 
ion.— Education  of  the  people  is 
well  provided  for.  The  prevail- 
ing religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 

737.  Cities.— Paris,  the  cap- 
ital, is  the  largest  city  on  the 
continent,  being  nearly  twice  as 
large  as  Berlin.  Paris  "  sets  the 
fashions"  for  the  world.  Her 
broad,  clean  streets,  her  public 
parks,  her  monuments,  and  her 
fine  edifices  make  her  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  large  cities. 

Lyons  manufactures  more  silk 
than  any  other  city.     Marseilles  is  the  greatest  sea-port  of  France. 
Bordeaux  has  a  great  trade  in  wines,  brandies,  and  fruits. 

ITAI,Y. 

738.  Area  and  Population. — The  Kingdom  of  Italy  consists 
of  the  Italian  Peninsula,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  many  small  islands. 
The  total  area  is  greater  than  that  of  France,  but  the  population 
is  10,000,000  less. 

739.  The  Products  of  Italy  are  various.  Fine  marbles  and 
other  building-stones  abound.  Among  the  mineral  products  are 
sulphur  and  borax.  Next  to  China,  Italy  produces  the  most  silk 
of  any  country.  Oranges,  lemons,  olives,  raisin-grapes,  almonds, 
chestnuts,  and  figs  are  abundant.     Rice  is  grown  in  Lombardy. 

740.  Cities. — Rome,  the  capital,  was  founded  more  than  seven 
hundred  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  Its 
antiquity,  its  historic  fame,  and  the  grandeur  of  its  edifices  make 
it  the  most  celebrated  city  in  the  world.  St.  Peters  is  the  largest 
and  most  richly  adorned  church  ever  erected.  The  Palace  of  the 
Vatican,  in  which  the  Pope  lives,  contains  4,422  chapels,  halls, 
and  other  apartments.  The  former  splendor  of  this  great  city  is 
attested  by  numerous  ruins  of  magnificent  structures.  Rome  is 
visited  by  artists  from  all  part-,  of  the  world,  who  go  there  to  study 

the  works  of  the  "  Old  Master£\" 

1 

1.  Tlio  Balearic  Islands  and  the  Canary  'slands  belong  to  Spain.  Their  population  is 
over  half  a  million.  Spain  also  owns  the  Philippine,  Caroline,  and  Ladrone  islands  in 
the  Pacific.  Of  her  American  colonial  posse  ssions— greater  for  two  hundred  years  than 
those  of  any  other  nation — only  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico  remain.  At  the  southern  extremity 
of  Spain  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Gibraltar,  together  with  the  town  of  Gibraltar  at  its  base. 


FARM   SCENE  NEAR  NAPLES. 


Naples,  the  largest  city  (population  460,000),  is  famous  for  its 
beauty.  Near  by  are  the  buried  cities  of  Pom  pe'ii(ye)  and  Her- 
culaneum,  which  were  overwhelmed  by  ashes  and  lava  emitted 
by  Vesuvius  in  the  year  79. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAW 

741.  Area  and  Natural  Features. — The  kingdoms  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  occupy  the  Spanish  or  Iberian  Peninsula,  which  has 
an  area  of  about  234,000  square  miles.  Several  mountain-ranges 
traverse  the  peninsula,  and  the  central  region  is  a  plateau  2,000  or 
3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rivers  are  usually  too  swift  to  be 
navigable.     The  Tagus,  the  largest,  is  navigable  only  90  miles. 

742.  The  Climate  is  equable  on  the  coast,  but  subject  to  ex- 
tremes in  the  interior.  The  rainfall  along  the  coast  is  copious,  but 
at  Madrid  the  annual  average  is  only  ten  inches.  Snow  seldom 
falls  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Tagus. 

743.  Minerals.— The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  peninsula  is  very 
great.  The  lead  and  quicksilver 
mines  are  particularly  rich. 

744.  Agriculture  is  in  a  crude 
condition,  most  of  the  inhabit- 
ants preferring  a  pastoral  life. 
Spain  has  long  been  noted  for  its 
fine  wool.  Goats  and  hogs  are 
raised  in  great  numbers  in  the 
mountains  of  Portugal,  where 
forests  of  oak  and  chestnut  fur- 
nish abundant  food.  The  cork- 
oak  and  the  kermes-oak  furnish 
valuable  products.  Vineyard 
and  olive  orchard  products  are 
important  exports.  The  sherry 
of  Cadiz,  the  port  wine  of  Oporto, 

the  raisins  of  Mal'a  ga,  the  oranges  of  SSv'ille,  and  the  olive-oil 
soap  of  Cas  tile'  are  notable  articles  of  commerce. 

745.  Inhabitants. — The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  are  descend- 
ants of  Graeco-Romanic  races,  mingled  with  Moorish  and  native 
Celtic  blood.  Their  languages  are  of  L,atin  origin.  The  total  pop- 
ulation of  the  peninsula  is  nearly  22,000,000. 

746.  Education  and  Religion  are  poorly  provided  for.  Not 
half  the  people  can  read.     The  Roman  Catholic  religion  prevails. 

747.  Cities.  —  Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  is  on  the  central 
plateau,  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  a  population  of  nearly 
500,000. 

Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  has  about  three  fifths  as  many 
inhabitants  as  Madrid.  It  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  Atlantic 
side  of  the  peninsula,  and  its  trade  includes  much  of  the  produce 
of  Spain,  which  is  brought  to  this  port  by  rail. 

GRx;ncn. 

748.  Natural  Features.  —  Greece,  though  not  one  fifth  as 
large,  has  a  longer  shore-line  than  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  Not 
more  than  half  of  its  mountainous  surface  is  suited  to  cultivation. 
The  highest  peaks,  attaining  an  elevation  of  about  8,000  feet, 
are  snow-clad  in  winter  only.  The  short,  rapid  rivers  are  not 
navigable. 

belongs  to  Great  Britain,  and  is  used  as  a  naval  station.  Portugal,  also,  once  had  vast 
colonial  possessions.  Now  her  colonies  are:  Cape  Verde.  St.  Thomas,  and  Prince's  islands 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa;  Mozambique;  Goa  (India):  Ma  cao'(kc'.-.)  (China),  and  a  part 
of  Ti  mor'  Island  (East  India).  The  Azores  Islands  and  Madeira,  hav-.i-.^  together  a  popu- 
lation of  about  400,000,  also  belong  to  Portugal. 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    TURKEY. 


123 


749.  History. — Greece  is  one  of  the  most  famous  countries  in 
the  world,  and  many  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era  it  was  the  seat  of  the  highest  civilization. 

750.  The  Chief  Exports  are  dried  Corinthian  grapes  (known 
in  commerce  as  currants),  figs,  citrons,  kermes  (insects  similar  to 
cochineal),  and  tanning-oak  acorn-cups.  The  last  two  are  products 
of  native  oaks,  and  are  used  in  dyeing  and  in  tanning  leather. 
All  citrus  fruits  and  olives  are  cultivated. 

751.  The  People  are  mostly  descendants  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
The  women  are  to  a  great  extent  illiterate,  and  a  large  percentage 
of  the  men  are  unable  to  read;  but  a  good  system  of  education  is 
now  established.  The  population  is  about  2,000,000 — one  third 
that  of  Belgium,  which  has  about  the  same  area  of  arable  land. 

752.  Government  and  Religion. — The  government  is  a 
monarchy,  whose  head  is  a  King,  and  the  Greek  church  is  the 
established  religion. 

753.  Cities. — Athens,  the  capital,  has  appropriately  been  called 
the  birthplace  of  liberty,  learning,  and  art.  The  modern  city  is 
growing  rapidly  and  has  now  a  population  of  about  85,000. 
Patras  and  Zante  export  most  of  the  currant  crop,  which  is  often 
worth  seven  or  eight  million  dollars.  Corfu  exports  oranges  and 
olives. 

ROUMANIA,  SMRVIA,  BUI^GARIA,  MONTMNEGRO. 

754.  The  Kingdoms  of  Roumania  and  Servia  and  the  prin- 
cipalities of  Bulgaria  and  Montenegro  were,  until  1878,  parts 
of  Turkey.  This  portion  of  Europe  covers  an  area  about  five 
sixths  as  large  as  that  of  California  and  is  rich  in  agricultural 
and  mineral  resources,  which  are  but  poorly  developed.  Stock- 
raising  is  the  chief  occupation.  The  population  numbers  about 
10,000,000,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Roumanians,  belongs 
to  the  Slavic  race  and  the  Greek  church. 

755.  Roumania  is  principally  a  great  plain.  Bii  cha  r&t',  the 
capital,  has  about  222,000  inhabitants. 

756.  Servia  is  a  mountainous  countrj-.  Hogs  are  the  chief 
source  of  wealth.  Little  ground  is  cultivated.  Belgrade  has 
about  38,000  inhabitants.  Bui  ga'ri  a  and  eastern  Ron  me'li  a 
export  considerable  grain.  The  south  slope  of  the  Balkans  is  the 
chief  rose-growing  region  of  the  world.  Philippopolis  is  about  as 
large  as  Sacramento,  and  So  phi  a  as  large  as  San  Jose.  Monte- 
negro is  a  mountainous,  forest-covered  country. 

QUESTIONS. 

The  German  Empire. — State  the  extent  of  the  German  Empire.  How 
many  Germans  in  Europe  in  1890?     How  many  in  the  German  Empire? 

What  can  you  say  of  Germany  respecting  its  political  influence?  Its 
educational  system?    Its  manufactures?    Commerce?    Military  importance? 


How  does  the  emigration  from  Germany  to  the  United  States  compare  in 
number  with  the  population  of  this  country  at  the  time  of  the  revolution? 

Agricultural  productions  of  Germany.  Mineral  productions.  Manufact- 
ure of  steel.  Name  the  principal  distinction  of  Berlin.  Of  Hamburg.  Of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

The  Netherlands. — Describe  the  elevation  of  Holland.  What  prevents 
Holland  from  being  a  sea?  How  does  it  compare  in  area  and  population 
with  Denmark?    Describe  the  commerce  and  foreign  possessions  of  Holland. 

What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  streets  of  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam? 
Which  is  larger,  Amsterdam  or  San  Francisco? 

Belgium. — Compare  Belgium  in  prosperity  and  population  with  other 
countries  of  Europe.  Of  what  races  are  the  Belgians?  Language  in  the 
schools?  Coal  and  iron?  Name  the  chief  distinction  of  Brussels.  Of  Ant- 
werp.   How  does  Brussels  compare  in  population  with  San  Francisco? 

Switzerland. — Describe  the  surface  of  Switzerland.  The  government. 
What  language  is  chiefly  spoken?  Where  does  the  French  language  pre- 
vail? Name  the  principal  agricultural  occupation.  The  chief  manufactures. 
What  of  education?    Of  roads? 

The  Austro-Himgarian  Empire. — Extent  of  this  empire.  Describe  its 
surface.  What  proportion  is  drained  by  the  Danube  River?  What  of  the 
Austrian  mines?  Where  is  the  principal  wheat  region?  What  other  agri- 
cultural products  are  important?     Describe  Vienna.     Buda-Pesth.     Trieste. 

France.— What  form  of  government  has  France?  How  does  it  compare  in 
size  with  California?  In  population  with  Germany?  Describe  its  surface. 
What  are  the  chief  products  in  southwestern  France?  In  northeastern 
France?  In  northern  France?  Size  of  French  farms?  Name  the  chief 
minerals  of  France.  The  principal  manufactures.  What  of  roads?  Of 
education?    Of  religion? 

How  does  Paris  compare  in  population  with  other  cities  on  the  continent 
of  Europe?  What  makes  Paris  beautiful?  Give  the  chief  distinction  of 
Lyons.     Of  Marseilles.     Of  Bordeaux. 

Italy. — What  form  of  government  has  Italy?  What  natural  division  of 
land  is  its  mainland?  What  large  islands  form  a  part  of  it?  What  of 
building-stones?  How  does  Italy  compare  with  China  in  the  production 
of  silk?     How  do  its  fruits  compare  in  kind  with  those  of  California? 

What  three  things  make  Rome  the  most  celebrated  city  in  the  world? 
Describe  St.  Peter's  Church  and  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — What  form  of  government  has  each  of  these  coun- 
tries? What  natural  division  of  land  do  they  constitute?  Describe  the 
rivers.  Compare  the  climate  of  the  coast  with  that  of  the  interior.  Describe 
the  mineral  wealth.  Name  five  notable  articles  of  commerce.  Name  three 
leading  animal  products.     Two  native  vegetable  products. 

Of  what  race  are  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese?  What  of  education? 
Of  religion?    Compare  Madrid  and  Lisbon  in  situation  and  population. 

Greece. — What  are  the  chief  exports  of  Greece?  How  do  you  think 
modem  Greece  compares  in  intelligence  with  ancient  Greece?  Why  do 
you  think  so?  What  is  the  form  of  government?  The  prevailing  religion? 
For  what  is  Athens  distinguished?  From  what  ports  is  the  currant  crop 
mostly  shipped? 

Roumania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Montenegro. — To  what  power  did  these 
countries  formerly  belong?  What  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people? 
The  religion?  Describe  the  surface  of  Roumania.  What  is  the  chief  source 
of  wealth  in  Servia?  In  which  of  these  countries  is  the  chief  rose-growing 
region  of  the  world?  What  cities  have  about  the  same  population  as  two 
California  cities?    Which  California  cities? 


THE  EMPIRE   OF  TURKEY. 


757.  The  Empire  of  Turkey,  often  called  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, was  once  one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  It  comprises 
European  Turkey;  Asiatic  Turkey,  including  Palestine  and  part 
of  the  Arabian  Peninsula;  and  the  countries  of  Trip'o  H,  Barka, 
and  FSz  zan',  in  Africa.  Altogether  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  rules, 
in  a  feeble  way,  over  about  i  ,000,000  square  miles  of  territory. 

The  people,  numbering  about  17,400,000.  are  of  many  races 
and  religions,  but  Turks  and  the  Mohammedan  religion  are 
dominant. 


758.  European  Turkey  is  remarkable  for  its  fertility,  but  agri- 
culture is  not  well  conducted.  In  the  mountains  many  sheep  and 
goats  are  pastured.  Buffaloes  are  used  as  draught  animals  and 
beasts  of  burden.  The  chief  exports  are  wool,  goat's  hair,  prunes, 
attar-of-roses,  opium,  meerschaum,  sponges,  and  leeches. 

Constantinople,  the  capital,  was  formerly  a  Christian  city,  but  in 
the  fifteenth  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans, 
who  changed  its  Christian  churches  into  mosques.  It  is  an 
important  commercial  city,  but  most  of  its  trade  is  in  the  hands 


124 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


2U  Loupitude      <^" 


IfirS-.    Vl   '^     30  liiiit  35  from  40       Greenwich     45 


'^f^'kWi 


> 


k~T" 


4f 


.>'^^. 


n 


A     C/1 


S 


»Z> 


->t«cr?*ff^^Vi^^S^^i  J    N,^._;  aj  /jRrW  y„,^^y^  j>y*V^_V}i. 


« 

h- 


A 


*    ^.V<.u 


^ttx' 


ltl>»^ 


MAP  QUESTIONS.  Position  and  Extent.— What  is  the  extent  of  the 
Turkish  Empire  in  latitude?  In  longitude?  What  straits  and  sea  divide 
Turkey  in  Europe  from  Turkey  in  Asia? 

Mountains. — What  mountains  form  a  divide  across  Asiatic  Turkey  from 
the  western  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Black  Sea? 

Rivers. — What  two  large  rivers  drain  the  country  to  the  southeast  of  this 
divide?    Describe  each  of  them.     Describe  the  River  Jordan. 


Countries  and  Cities. — Where  is  Asia  Minor?  What  mountains  bound  it 
on  the  east?  Find  Mesopotamia.  Syria.  Tripoli.  Barka.  Give  the  loca- 
tion of  the  following  cities:  Constantinople;  Jerusalem;  Mosul;  Smyrna; 
Damascus. 

Miscellaneous.— What  is  the  length  of  the  Red  Sea?  What  waters  would 
you  pass  over  in  sailing  from  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Man'deb  to  Venice?  How 
far?  Notice  that  wadays  (water-ways  which  are  usually  dry)  are  indicated 
on  the  map  by  pairs  of  dotted  lines.     Cities  are  connected  by  railways. 


of  foreigners.     Among  its  exports  are  Asiatic  goods,  brought  to 
Scu  ta'ri  by  caravans.    The  population  is  nearly  1,000,000. 

759.  Asiatic  Turkey  comprises  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  the  Basin 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers,  and  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
Red  Sea.  Here  two  great  religfions,  Christianity  and  Moham- 
medanism, originated.  In  Syria  is  Palestine,  with  its  famous 
city  of  Jerusalem.  Near  Mo'siil.  on  the  Tigris,  are  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  city  of  Ninevah.     Smyrna,  the  largest  city,  is  about 


half  as  large  as  San  Francisco.    Damascus  (perhaps  the  oldest  city 
in  the  world)  is  the  center  of  a  large  caravan  trade. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  Empire  of  Turkey  sometimes  called?  What  regions  are 
under  Turkish  rule?  What  is  the  character  of  the  Turkish  rule?  What  is 
the  chief  ruler  styled?  Name  the  chief  exports  of  European  Turkey. 
What  is  the  religion  of  the  Turks?  What  are  their  religious  temples  called? 
What  does  Asiatic  Turkey  comprise?  What  choice  dried  fruit  does  Smyrna 
export?    How  does  Smyrna  compare  in  population  with  San  Francisco? 


SOUTHEASTERN    EURASIA. 


126 


SOUTHEASTERN  EURASIA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

THn  CHINSS:^  MMPIRS. 

760.  Area.— The  Chinese  Government  (the  oldest  in  the  world) 
rules  over  more  than  a  fourth  of  Asia — an  area  greater  than 
that  of  all  Europe,  and  equal  to  about  once  and  a  half  that  of 
the  United  States. 

761.  China  proper  is  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  the 
empire.  Its  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  India,  and  its  popu- 
lation—probably near  350,000,000 — is  considerably  greater. 

762.  Physical  Features. — China  is  mainly  a  mountainous 
country,  with  a  general  slope  eastward  from  the  mountains  of  Tibet 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  the  west  and  southwest  many  peaks  rise 
above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Its  two  great  rivers  run 
through  fertile  valleys,  and  have  built  up  most  of  the  lowland 
plain  that  reaches  from  Hang  Chow  Bay  (latitude  30°)  northward 
to  Peking,  a  distance  of  nearly  700  miles.  This  alluvial  plain  is 
traversed  by  the  Impe- 
rial Canal  and  numerous 
natural  water-ways.* 

763.  Products.-China 
has  many  extensive  beds 
of  excellent  coal  and  rich 
mines  of  iron  and  other 
useful  metals. 

Owing  to.  its  gfreat 
variety  of  latitude  the 
vegetable  products  are 
those  that  belong  to  both 
temperate  and  tropical 
climates.  Wheat,  barley, 
oats,  and  apples  grow 
in  the  north.  The  mul- 
berry, by  which  the  silk- 
worm is  reared,  and  the 
tea-plant  are  the  noted 
products  of  its  middle  latitude,  though  the  food  grains  are  here 
more  abundant  than  elsewhere  in  the  empire.  In  the  south 
oranges,  bananas,  and  mangoes  flourish,  though  rice  is  the  staple 
grain.  Many  kinds  of  vegetables  are  cultivated  everywhere,  and 
agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  The  most  important  plants 
are  rice,  tea,  cotton,  mulberry,  and  bamboo.  Next  to  rice  and  silk 
the  bamboo  yields  the  largest  revenue. 

764.  Exports. — China  furnishes  most  of  the  tea  and  silk  used 
in  the  world.  Her  other  important  exports  are  fine  porcelain 
wares,  called  china,  lacquered  wares,  and  fire-works. 

765.  Education. — Most  Chinamen  can  read,  write,  and  solve 
practical  problems  in  arithmetic.  Many  are  well  educated  in  the 
literature  of  their  language  and  in  the  history  of  their  country. 
Only  a  few  have  any  knowledge  of  the  natural  sciences. 

766.  Peking,  the  capital,  and  Canton  are  the  chief  cities.  Peking 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  30  feet  high  and  25  feet  thick.  The  houses 
of  the  city  are  rarely  more  than  one  storj'  high.  The  population  of 
Peking  is  estimated  at  2,000,000,  and  that  of  Canton  at  1,500,000. 

1.  In  tills  plain  region  many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  hou.ses  built  on  rafts  and 
boats  that  float  in  the  rivers.  On  these  rafts  and  boats  are  gardens,  whose  owners  subsist 
by  their  cultivation,  and  by  fishing.  Here  they  rear  their  families  and  here  their  children 
are  married  and  die. 

2.  A  peculiar,  long-haired  ox,  called  the  yak,  and  a  kind  of  sheep  are  used  for  pack- 
animals  in  the  lofty  mountains  of  Tibet.    The  cashmere  goat  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 


767.  Chinese  Provinces.— The  lofty  Plateau  of  Tibet  and  the 
desert  plains  of  Mongolia  and  East  Turkestan  are  not  adapted  to 
agriculture.  The  chief  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  many  of  whom 
are  nomads,  consists  in  their  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  horses, 
buffalo,  and  camels.' 

Manchooria  and  Corea  are  little  known.  The  latter  is  now 
virtually  independent.     Tiger  skins  are  exported. 

INDIA  AND  INDOCHINA. 

768.  Extent. — The  countries  lying  south  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
were  formerly  known  as  the  East  Indies.  India  proper,  or  Hin- 
doostan,  and  the  countries  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  have 
together  an  area  greater  than  that  of  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  a  population  five  times  as  great. 

769.  Government. — Two  thirds  of  India  and  nearly  one  third 
of  Indo-China  are  under  the  British  Government.  The  French 
control  more  than  a  third  of  Indo-China  and  have  possession  of 
several  sea-ports.     Siam  is  an  independent  country. 

INDIA.  I 

770.  Physical  Feat- 
ures.— India  has  three 
physical  .regions:  the 
highlands  of  the  Hima- 
layas; the  plains  of  the 
Ganges  and  Indus  riv- 
ers; and  the  peninsular 
plateau  south  of  the 
Ganges.  The  nearly  un- 
broken coast-line  has  few 
good  harbors.  Forests 
occupy  a  large  part  of  the 
country,  and  extensive 
areas  are  covered  with 
dense  jungles.* 

771.  Products.— The 

most  productive  and  pop- 
ulous region  is  the  lower  end  of  the  Ganges  Valley,  including  the 
united  deltas  of  that  river  and  the  Brahmapootra.  Rice,  cotton, 
opium,  indigo,  tea,  and  jute  are  exported.  Wheat  has  recently 
become  a  leading  product.  Tropical  fruits  are  abundant.  India- 
rubber,  obtained  from  a  gigantic  species  of  fig  tree,  was  once  an 
important  export.     Coal  and  iron  ore  are  found  in  large  quantities. 

772.  Ceylon. — This  large  island  has  extensive  forests  of  teak, 
ebony,  rose-wood,  satin-wood,  and  other  valuable  trees.  Coffee, 
tea,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  cinnamon  are  exported. 

773.  Inhabitants. — About  six  sevenths  of  the  people  of  India, 
or  over  225,000,000,  are  Hindoos.  The  total  English  population 
is  less  than  160,000.  Many  of  the  native  princes  possess  fabulous 
wealth,  but  the  common  people  live  in  poverty  and  their  villages 
are  merely  collections  of  wretched  huts.* 

774.  Education. — Nearly  $25,000,000  is  annually  expended  for 
public  education;  but  in  1885  four  fifths  of  the  people  could  not 
read  or  write. 

775.  Calcutta,  the  capital,  has  nearly  900,000  inhabitants. 

animals  of  this  region.    It  is  remarkable  that  nearly  all  the  cultivated  plants  and  domestic 
animals  of  China  are  natives  of  the  country. 

3.  The  forests  of  India  are  infested  with  tigers  and  venomous  snakes.    About  20,000  people, 
are  annually  killed  by  these  animals.    Elephants  and  bufTaloes  are  domesticated. 

4.  The  Hindoos  live  mostly  upon  rice  and  fruits.     Mutton  and  fish  are  the  chief  animal 
foods.     Beef  and  pork  are  never  eaten. 


SOUTHEASTERN    EURASIA. 


127 


MAP    QUESTIONS. 

Location  of  Countries. — Bound  the  Chinese  Empire,  naming  all  the  ocean 
waters  that  border  it,  beginning  with  the  Japan  Sea.  Between  what  parallels 
of  latitude  does  this  empire  lie?  Between  what  meridians  of  longitude? 
Name  all  the  countries  and  waters  that  surround  British  India.  Between 
what  parallels  of  latitude  does  it  lie?  Meridians  of  longitude?  Give  the 
boundary  of  Siam.     Of  Anam.     Of  B£l  oo  chis  tan'.     Of  Afghanistan. 

Islands. — What  island  empire  east  of  the  Chinese  Empire?  What  islands 
east  of  Anam?  To  what  power  do  they  belong?  Where  is  Hong  Kong,  and 
to  whom  does  it  belong?  In  what  direction  from  Siam  is  Borneo?  What 
water  separates  it  from  the  mainland?  Direction  of  Sumatra  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  What  water  separates  it  from  the  mainland?  Direction  of  Java 
from  Sumatra?  Of  Borneo?  What  water  separates  it  from  Sumatra?  Give 
the  position  of  CSl'e  be§  in  its  relation  to  Borneo.  What  water  separates  it 
from  Borneo?  What  large  island  southeast  of  Hindoostan?  What  waters 
separate  it  from  the  mainland? 


Mountains. —  Beginning  with  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains,  name  all  the 
mountain-ranges  that  form  the  boundary  between  the  Chinese  Empire  and 
Siberia.  Beginning  with  the  Su  Igi'man'  Mountains,  name  the  mountain- 
ranges  that  form  the  northern  boundary  of  India.  Find  Kyber  Pass.  Bo  Ian 
Pass.     What  mountain-ranges  bound  the  Plateau  of  Tibet? 

Rivers. — What  large  river  forms  part  of  the  northern  boundary  of  llie 
Chinese  Empire?  Name  and  describe  the  two  large  rivers  that  drain  the 
eastern  slope  of  China.  What  canal  crossing  these  rivers  connects  Peking 
and  Hang  Chow?  Name  and  describe  the  large  river  that  drains  Indo-China 
to  the  southeast.  Describe  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  rivers.  Name 
and  describe  the  large  river  that  drains  western  India. 

Provinces  and  Cities. — In  what  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire  is  Manchooria? 
Corea?  China?  Tibet?  Eastern  Turkestan?  How  far  apart  are  Peking 
and  Canton?  Give  the  location  of  each.  Name  and  give  the  location  of 
the  capital  cities  of  the  following  countries:  Anam;  Siam;  Burmab;  Hin- 
doostan. 


INDO-CHINA. 

776.  The  People  of  the  northern  countries  are  a  branch  of  the  Mon- 
golian race.     Malays  inhabit  the  southern  regions. 

777.  Products. — The  forests  are  often  nearly  as  dense  as  those  of  the 
Amazon.  Cotton,  indigo,  raw  silk,  rice,  and  spices  are  among  the  exports. 
There  are  mines  rich  in 
tin  on  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. Trade  is  mostly 
in  the  hands  of  Chinese 
merchants.  Rice  and 
fish  form  the  chief  food 
of  the  people. 

BMLOOCHISTAN, 
AFGHANISTAN. 

11%.  These  are  rug- 
ged, mountainous  coun- 
tries, without  navigable 
rivers  or  good  roads, 
inhabited  by  nomadic 
people,  who,  like  the 
Arabs,  have  never  been 
long  united  under  any 
one  monarch.  The 
trade-routes  from  India 
westward  lie  through 
narrow  passes  in  the 
mountains.  The  most 
notable  of  these  is  the 
Bolan  Pass  in  Beloo- 
chistan,  a  series  of  nar- 
row canons  fifty  miles 
in  length. 

The  climate  of  Afghanistan  is  favorable  to  long  life.  In  the 
lowland  country  the  productions  are  like  those  of  India — rice, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  corn.  In  the  upland  regions  the  fruits 
and  grains  of  Europe  do  well,  but  agriculture  is  not  well  conducted. 
Manufacturing  arts  are  in  a  low  condition;  but  fine  carpets  are 
made  at  Herat,  near  the  western  border.  Shawls  of  rare  quality 
are  also  manufactured  from  the  fine  wool  of  the  sheep  and  goats, 
which  are  abundant.  Considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  the 
adj'oining  countries,  and  is  conducted  wholly  by  means  of  camels 
and  horses,  the  condition  of  the  roads  not  permitting  the  use  of 
wheeled  vehicles. 

The  Afghans  are  a  turbulent  race,  impatient  of  restraint  and 
hence  incapable  of  high  civilization.    The  population  is  about 


A    NATIVE   VILLAGE. 


roniAN  TEMPLE. 


5,000,000.  The  low  plain  regions  of 
Beloochistan  produce  the  tropical  plants 
common  to  southern  Asia.  The  upland 
pastures  are  generally  poor,  but  many 
sheep  and  goats  are  kept.  The  country 
is  unimportant.  The  population  is  less 
than  half  a  million.  English  influence 
controls  the  government. 

QVESTIONS. 

The  Chinese  Empire.  —  How  does  this 
government  rank  in  age  with  the  other  gov- 
ernments of  the  world?  What  is  its  area 
compared  with  that  of  Asia?  With  that  of 
Europe?  How  does  the  area  of  China  proper 
compare  with  that  of  India?  Describe  the 
surface  and  drainage  of  China.  Important 
mineral  products.  Vegetable  products.  Ex- 
ports.    Education.      In    what    provinces  of 

China  does  live-stock  constitute  the   principal  wealth?    What  kinds  of 

live-stock? 

India  and  Indo-China. — How  does  this  region  compare  in  area  with  the 
United  States?    In  population?    How  are  the  different  countries  governed? 

India. — Describe  the  physical  features.  Where  is  the  center  of  produc- 
tion and  population?  Name  the  principal  agricultural  products.  Mineral 
products.  Name  the  products  and  exports  of  Ceylon.  How  does  the  native 
population  compare  in  numbers  with  the  English?    What  of  education? 

Indo-China.— What  races  populate  the  countries  of  Indo-China?  Describe 
the  forests.  What  are  the  exports?  Who  control  the  trade,  chiefly? 
What  of  minerals?    Principal  food  of  the  people? 

Beloochistan  and  Afghanistan.— What  is  the  character  of  the  people? 
What  importance  has  Bolan  Pass?  Describe  it.  What  of  agriculture?  Of 
manufactures?    Of  commerce? 


128 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


JAPAN. 


779.  Physical  Features. — Four  large  islands 
and  nearly  4,000  islets  constitute  the  Empire  of 
Japan.  The  islands  are  mountainous,  and  several 
of  the  peaks  are  active  volcanoes.  Earthquakes 
are  frequent.  Rivers  are  numerous  and  generallj^ 
wide  at  their  mouths,  but  are  navigable  for  only- 
short  distances  inland.  The  landscapes  of  Japan 
are  said  to  resemble  those  of  the  New  England 
States  in  surface  and  forest  trees,  the  oak  and 
maple  being  abundant.  The  total  area  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  California. 

780.  The  Climate,  like  that  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America  between  the  same  parallels, 
is  subject  to  extremes,  but  is  so  varied  that  very 
difiFerent  products  are  found  in  the  different  prov- 
inces.    Hurricanes  are  frequent. 

781.  Products. — ^Japan  is  well  supplied  with 
ores  of  the  useful  metals.  Gold  mines  have  been 
worked  for  centuries.  The  forest  trees  yield 
valuable  gums  and  resins,  among  which  are  cam- 
phor and  the  gum  from  which  the  varnish  of 
japanned  wares  is  made.  Rice,  cotton,  tea,  and 
mulberry  are  cultivated. 

782.  The  Exports  are  raw  silk,  tea,  japanned 
goods,  and  sulphur.  Many  kinds  of  peculiar  or 
ornamental  articles,  generally  known  as  "  curios," 
are  now  exported. 

783.  Government.  —  Japan  is  a  despotism, 
which,  for  more  than  2,600  years,  has  been  admin- 
istered by  a  line  of  hereditary  monarchs,  the 
present  emperor,  or  Mikado,  being  the  one  hundred 
and  twenty-first.  Although  the  laws  are  harsh, 
many  popular  rights  are  granted  by  the  Mikado. 

784.  People. — The  Japanese  are  usually  classed  with  the  Mon- 
golians. Their  civilization  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Chinese,  but 
higher  in  some  ways.     Unlike  the  Chinese,  they  are  rapidly  adopt- 


Map  Questions.  —  Compare  the  dis- 
tance between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern extremities  of  Japan  with  the 
distance  between  Portland,  Oregon,  and 
the  southern  point  of  California.  Name 
the  four  principal  islands  of  the  empire. 
Which  is  the  largest  island  of  the  em- 


Give  the  location  of  Tokyo  and 
Yo  ko  ha'ma.     What 
Tokyo? 

Globe  Exercises. — Stretch  your  globe- 
measure  from  San  Francisco  to  Yoko- 
hama. About  how  far  apart  are  these 
cities?  In  what  direction  would  you  at 
first  sail  to  go  directly  from  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Yokohama?  In  what  direction 
would  you  sail  next?  Why  would  you 
not  sail  directly  west  from  the  start? 
(See  Sec.  10.) 


founding  schools  similar  to  ours.    A  National  University  has  been 

established  at  Tokyo,  and  also  a  training  school  for  teachers.     In 

decorative  art  they  surpass  all  other  people.     They  also  excel  in 

the  manufacture  of  sword  blades  and  other 

metallic  articles,  silk  and  cotton  fabrics, 

and  porcelain. 

The  population  is  about  38,000,000. 

785.  Cities. —  Yokohama  is  the  chief 
sea-port,  and  is  a  little  south  of  the  parallel 
of  San  Francisco.  Its  population  is  a 
little  more  than  115,000,  and  is  chiefly 
foreign.  Tokyo,  the  imperial  city,  has  a 
larger  area  than  any  other  city  in  the 
world,   being    extensively   occupied  with 

parks  and  gardens.  The  population  is  a 
•      little  over  1,000,000. 


i> 


QUESTIONS. 


ing  the  customs,  dress,  and  civilization  of  the  white  races.    They 
are  building  railways,  establishing  postal  and  telegraph  lines,  and 


^'       fir 

^  .  ^y   Of  what  is  the   Empire  of  Japan 

\  \      constituted?     What  is  the  chief 

?*    "^J,'    \  \\\iY  ruler  called?     Describe  the 

r      »  VF      I  I   \  surface.     How  does  the  em- 

""  pire  compare   in   area   with 

California?  To  what  race  do  the 
Japanese  belong?  Compare  them  in  their  civilization  with  the  Chinese. 
What  of  metals?   Forest  products?  Agricultural  products?  Exports?  Cities? 


'^M 


AFRICA. 


129 


MAP   QUESTIONS. 


V,  J- 


[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Position. — [See  Map  of  Hemispheres,  p.  6.]  Describe  the  situation  of 
Africa  as  to  Eastern  and  Western,  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres. 
What  direction  is  it  from  South  America?  North  America?  Eurasia? 
Australia?  What  ocean  separates  it  from 
North  and  South  America?  From  Austra- 
lia? What  ocean  south  of  Africa?  What 
strait  and  sea  separate  Africa  from  Europe? 
From  Asia?  What  isthmus  joins  Africa 
to  Asia?  Which  is  the  larger,  Africa  or 
South  America?  Which  extends  farther 
north?    Farther  south? 

[See  Political  Map  of  Africa.]  What  are 
the  extremes  of  latitude  of  Africa?  Of 
longitude?  In  what  zones  does  it  lie?  In 
which  zone  is  most  of  it?  Compare  it  with 
South  America  in  zonal  position. 

Shape. — What  is  the  general  shape  of 
Africa?  Is  it  broadest  toward  the  north  or 
toward  the  south?  In  what  direction  is  its 
greatest  length?  Compare  it  with  South 
America  in  shape. 

Mountains. —  What  mountain-range  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea?  In  the 
extreme  south?  Near  the  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea?  In  the  extreme  northwest? 
How  does  the  trend  of  each  of  the  above 
ranges  compare  with  that  of  the  adjacent 
coast?  Do  the  mountain-ranges  of  Africa 
generally  trend  north  and  south  or  east  and 


erally  parallel  to  the  coast  or  transverse  to  it?  Point  oat  on  the  relief  map 
the  following:  Snow  Mountains;  Atlas  Mountains;  Cameroons  Mountains; 
Mount  Kenia;  Mount  Kilima  Njaro. 

[See  Physical  Map  of  Africa.]  Which  part  of  the  map  shows  most  land 
above  5,000  feet  in  elevation,  the  eastern  or  the  western?  The  northern  or 
the  southern?    Is  the  interior  of  Africa   lowland  or  highland?    Are  the 


IT 


/ 


^-^0^- 


west?  What  east  and  west  range  just  south  of  10°  south  latitude?  Where 
is  Mount  Ke  ni'a?  Mount  Kilima  Njaro  (kille  man  ja  ro')?  Ras  Dashan? 
Mount  Milt  sin'?    The  Cameroons  Mountains? 

[See  Relief   Map  of  Africa.]     Are  the  mountainous  parts  of  Africa  in 
general  near  the  coast  or  in  the  interior?     Are  the  mountain-ranges  gen- 


IJ^  V 


highest  mountains  in  the  east  or  in  the  west?  In  the  north  or  in  the  south? 
Where  in  Africa  do  elevations  above  10,000  feet  occur?  Where  are  volca- 
noes most  numerous?  Are  the  coast  lowlands  of  Africa  wide  or  narrow? 
In  what  part  of  the  continent  is  the  greatest  extent  of  lowland? 

Drainage. — [See  Political  Map  of  Africa.]  What  great  river  flows  north- 
erly into  the  Mediterranean  Sea?  Easterly  into  the  Indian  Ocean?  What 
three  fiow  into  the  Atlantic?  Where  is  Lake  Chad?  What  river  flows  into 
it?  Name  five  great  lakes  in  equatorial  Africa.  What  great  rivers  have 
their  sources  in  this  lake  region?  Where  does  the  Blue  Nile  rise?  Do  the 
courses  of  the  great  rivers  of  Africa  lie  principally  in  highlands  or  in  low- 
lands? Do  they  have  long  or  short  lower  courses?  What  falls  on  the 
Zam  be'  §i?  On  the  Congo?  Compare  the  Basin  of  the  Congo  with  that  of 
the  Amazon  in  regard  to  extent  in  latitude.  In  longitude.  Compare  the 
Nile  with  the  Mississippi  as  to  the  extent  of  latitude  that  each  traverses. 
Name  two  rivers  of  Africa  that  have  deltas.  Where  in  Africa  are  there 
interior  drainage-basins?    What  large  part  of  Africa  has  no  rivers? 

Coast-Line. — Is  the  coast-line  of  Africa  regular  or  irregular?  Compare  it 
with  that  of  North  America  in  this  respect.  With  that  of  South  America. 
Of  Eurasia.  What  capes  at  the  northeast  extremity  of  the  Atlas  Mountains? 
At  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Snow  Mountains?  At  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Kong  Mountains?  What  islands  at  the  southwest  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains?   What  four  islands  in  line  with  the  Cameroons  Mountains? 


i 


130 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


What  islands  form  a  continuation  of  Cape  Guardafui  (gwar  da  fwee')?  What 
two  oceanic  islands  in  the  Atlantic  west  of  southern  Africa?  What  great 
mountainous  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  parallel  to  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa?  What  water  separates  it  from  Africa?  Where  is  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez?    The  Suez  Canal?    Could  you  go  entirely  around  Africa  in  a  steamer? 

Take  up  next,  the  map  exercises  on  Africa  in  connection  with: 

(l)  The  Map  of  Ocean-Currents,  p.  27.  (2)  The  Maps  of  Thermal  Zones, 
p.  22.  (3)  The  Maps  of  Barometric  Pressure,  p.  25.  {4)  The  Map  of  Rain- 
fall, p.  26. 

Exercises  and  Problems. — ilodel  the  Atlas  Mountains  with  sand.  The 
Snow  Mountains.  Make  a  sketch-map  showing  the  relative  position  of  the 
mountains  of  Africa. 

Make  a  sketch-map  of  the  Congo  River-System.  Of  the  Nile  System. 
Model  Africa  with  sand,  to  show  its  mountain-systems  and  drainage-systems. 
Make  a  sketch-map  of  Africa  showing  mountains,  river-systems,  and  out- 
lines. Make  a  profile  section  of  .\frica  from  Cape  Town  to  Algiers.  From 
Cape  Town  to  Alexandria.  From  Cape  Town  to  Aden.  At  8°  north  latitude. 
At  8°  south.     At  20°  north.     At  20°  south. 

Using  the  scale  of  miles,  determine  the  width  of  Africa  in  latitude  15° 
north,  and  its  length  from  Cape  A  gQllias  (yas)  to  Cape  Bon. 

Omit  the  following  until  taking  up  Political  Africa,  p.  ijj: 

Using  the  guide  to  colors  on  the  map,  name  all  the  African  States  under 
the  influence  of  Great  Britain.  Of  France.  Of  Germany.  Of  Portugal. 
Of  Italy.  What  kind  of  commercial  routes  occur  generally  throughout 
Africa?    Which  States  have  railroads? 

The  Barbary  States. — ^What  five  African  States  (the  Barbary  States)  on  the 
Mediterranean  west  of  Egypt?  What  desert  south  of  them?  What  mount- 
ains in  Morocco  and  Algeria?  Which  have  the  most  railroads?  What  is 
the  capital  of  each?  How  could  you  travel  from  Tripoli  to  Cai'ro?  To 
Lake  Chad?     From  Algiers  to  Tim  biik'tg? 

Abyssinia. — ^What  strait,  sea,  and  gulf  east  of  Abyssinia?  Is  Abyssinia  a 
highland  or  lowland  country?  What  high  peak  in  Abyssinia?  What  lake? 
What  branches  of  the  Nile  rise  in  its  mountains?    What  is  its  capital? 


Egypt.— What  sea  east  of  Egypt?  North?  What  desert  west?  WTiat 
mountains  in  Egypt?  What  great  river  flows  through  it?  What  is  the 
character  of  its  mouth?  Where  is  Cairo?  Alexandria?  K^ar  turn'?  Port 
Said?    Suez?    What  is  the  capital?     Where  are  there  railroads  in  Egypt? 

Eastern  Coast  States. — What  five  European  nations  control  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa?  UTiat  two  high  peaks  in  British  East  Africa?  What  lakes 
in  the  East  African  States?  What  great  river  crosses  Mozambique?  Where 
is  Delagoa  Bay?     Where  is  Zan  zi  bar'? 

Madagascar. — What  water  separates  Madagascar  from  Africa?  Is  Mada- 
gascar level  or  mountainous?     Compare  it  with  California  in  size. 

Southern  Africa. — What  mountains  in  southern  .\frica?  What  lake? 
What  river  flowing  west?  East?  What  capes  at  the  southern  extremity? 
Which  countries  are  independent  republics?  What  is  the  capital  of  Cape 
Colony?    Of  Orange  Free  State?    Where  is  Kimberley? 

Congo  Free  State. — Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  is  Congo  Free 
State?  What  is  its  capital?  What  river-system  drains  it?  What  lakes 
along  its  eastern  border? 

The  Guinea  Coast. — What  gulf  adjoins  the  G«in'ea  Coast?  What  great 
river  crosses  Upper  Guinea?  Lower  Guinea?  What  mountains  in  Upper 
Guinea?  Where  are  the  Cameroons  Mountains?  What  islands  near  the 
Guinea  Coast?  What  countries  in  Upper  Guinea?  In  Lower  Guinea?  What 
foreign  country  claims  each  of  the  States  of  the  Guinea  Coast?  What  is  the 
capital  of  Da  ho'me_y?  Of  Ash  an'ti?  Where  is  the  Slave  Coast?  The  Ivory 
Coast?     The  Gold  Coast?    The  Grain  Coast? 

Senegambia. — What  two  rivers  cross  Senegambia?  What  cape  at  the 
west?  What  ocean?  To  what  country  does  Senegambia  principally  belong? 
What  other  countries  claim  parts  of  it? 

Soudan. — What  desert  north  of  Soudan'?  What -river  drains  western 
Soudan?  Eastern?  What  lake  in  central  Soudan?  What  river  flows  into 
it?   What  foreign  country  has  most  influence  in  Soudan?    Where  is  So  koto'? 

Sahara. — WTiat  countries  north  of  Sahara?  South?  East?  What  ocean 
west?  Compare  Sahara  with  the  United  States  in  length  from  east  to  west. 
What  kind  of  routes  of  travel  exist  in  Sahara?  What  foreign  nation  controls 
western  Sahara?    What  is  the  latitude  of  the  central  part  of  Sahara? 


AFRICA. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION. 

786.  Shape,  Surface,  Area.  —  Like  the  Americas,  Africa  is 
somewhat  triangular  in  shape,  broadest  at  the  north,  and  bordered 
by  mountain-systems;  but  its  interior 
is  a  plateau  instead  of  a  low  plain.  Its 
area  is  a  little  more  than  half  that  of 
Eurasia. 

HIGHLANDS. 

787.  The  Primary  Mountain-Axis 

is  in  the  east  instead  of  the  west,  and 
consists  of  a  plateau  extending  from 
Abyssinia,  where  it  is  9,000  feet  high, 
to  South  Africa,  3,500  feet  high;  and 
the  larger  portion  of  the  continent  is 
a  plateau  sloping  westerly  and  north- 
erly from  this  axis. 

788.  The  Bordering  Mountain- 
Ranges  begin  at  Suez  and  completely 
encircle  the  continent,  excepting  at  the 
northeast  and  the  northwest;  but  they 
are  nowhere  continuous  for  any  great 
distance.  They  are  generally  parallel 
to  the  coast,  and  in  many  places  exceed 
but  little  the  height  of  the  plateau 
which  they  surround. 

789.  Volcanoes    and    Earthquakes.  —  Africa  has  but  few 
active  or  extinct  volcanoes;  and  violent  earthquakes  are  rare. 


IN  THE  MARSHES  OF  THE  LAKE  COUNTRY, 


I^OWI^ANDS. 

790.  The  Lowland  Regions  comprise  a  narrow  and  low  plain, 
skirting  almost  the  entire  coast.    Along  the  northern  border  of  the 

interior  plateau  near  the  Mediterranean 
coast  is  a  series  of  depressions  below 
the  sea-level. 

791.  Coast-Line. — As  the  border  of 
the  continent  consists  of  mountain- 
ranges  close  to  the  coast  and  also 
parallel  to  it,  the  coast-line  is  almost 
unbroken. 

DRAINAGE. 

792.  Rivers. — With  the  exception 
of  the  Niger,  all  the  great  African 
rivers — the  Nile,  Congo,  and  Zambesi — 
have  their  sources  in  the  great  eastern 
water-shed.  The  basins  of  African 
rivers  lie  principally  upon  the  interior 
plateau,  and  their  channels  reach  the 
coast  through  the  surrounding  mount- 
ain-ranges by  a  series  of  cataracts  or 
waterfalls,  rendering  navigation  from 
the  coast  difficult  or  impossible.  All 
carr>-  much  detritus,  and  their  mouths 
are  more  or  less  obstructed  by  bars. 

The  lower  course  of  the  Nile  lies  in  a  comparatively  narrow  allu- 
vial valley,  and  is  subject  to  annual  overflows  when  the  .snow 


T!-ltii()p      20  "West  10 


COMPARATIVE 
AREA 


10       Lon^tude 


30  from  40       Greenwich        60 


^^ 


MADEIRA  IS. 
Jichal  <^  (J\>rt.) 


,'"», 


'e^s^*"  s  ^k^s, 


.  CANARY  IS. 


*■     ft.  fr7_,  ^..^. 

v-.'~*  -^  r^^ ».  /  „    -iT  A      V^  J>     Ore  inah 


Ourartt  '*" 


ATwtet  H     r''    A 

IdelPS  4  i 


4 


TROPIC  OF  CANCER    ] -iueit'8  '^^Q 

" "" "i  if "o'S'uf 

S   P  H   E   R;  E  ,          . 

T      /•'"  D  Ei     S^^^^'Z 

/- ^J , L__.;  -JX&Q :■- 

O   K        T   A^^  W  A  :^  E  Kj           T1BE6H 

\                ^  Kift  w  a  r-.. 


FRENCH 

A  n  ^iw  a  d 


«* 


Si^- 


Arawftn" 

TtMBUKTU" 


•'  Ta*jhelel 


ISO""' 


o'- 


G    U   Ii    F 


O    P 


'    FE»»ANOt)  PO  l.jjV£»"ER00»8 


oJsuaniqftd 


Bight  of  Biafro,    1 1  "  '.         ^J/     ^B,Congo    ,^^*-ySU^n'^'d<iA^      ,,^'if^  ^   * 


C./.op«z<> 


ODIN 


E   A 


FT&nce--SY 


AgOEWBinN  I. 


46V0< 


o 


KAOSO 
tAND 


AFRICA 


SCALE,  BaO  MtLEB  TO  1   INCtt 


MtOmatafiQ 
OtyimtjlLgTae 


SCALE  OF  MILES.  . 


0       lUU2UU3UU«JU&UU0U0lUO80OiW0     1000 


E)(PLANATION: 


Capitals,— _ ..„_ 

Capitals  &  Largest  Cities,.„ 

Caravan  Houtfes, 

Railroads, 


I'roposed  Ilail  roads,. ......_j ^ 

Congo  ^Javjgation, 

Proposed.NUe-Zambezi  Navigation, . 


Rehobotti 
KASAlAlA  LD 


^   COMORO  UW 
COMORO ft 

■       JOHAKNA 
»    *  GR.MIN 

MAYOTTA*  ^ 


lambaue^ 

'CCorrlenUs    yjj 

.renzo  Marquez  N/ 

DtUgoa  Bajf  O/ 

AfATONOA  ^/ 


rraariteburg' 
ban  A  Port  Notnl 


Longitude- 


C.AgulhiU 


Longitiuie  20 


/BWd'sft -P&sse«sio?i8  colored^ 
French  '*  " 

German 
Tortugueae 
Italian 


&.  D.  SwTOH,  KiiOf'-  *- 


132 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


melts  along  its  upper  course.  The  soil  of  Egj'pt  is  thereby  enriched 
by  annual  deposits  of  fertile  mud  from  the  Abyssinian  Mountains. 
793.  The  Lakes  of  Africa,  some  of  which  rival  the  Great 
Lakes  of  North  America  in  size,  lie  principally  upon  the  primary 
water-shed,  at  the  sources 
of  the  Nile  and  the 
Congo.  Lake  Tan  gan- 
ji'ka  has  an  outlet 
through  the  Congo 
only  when  excess- 
ive rains  fill  its 
basin.  .-^ 


794.  Interior  Drainage.— Lake  Chad  is  a  brackish  water- 
swamp  in  the  dry  season,  but  covers  many  thousand  square  miles 
in  the  wet  season.  It  preserves  its  freshness  by  overflowing  during 
the  rainy  season  through  a  river,  called  the  Bahr  el  Ghazal,  toward 


>f^ 


wwm' 


AfiS'r- 


the  desert.     Lake  N'ga  mi  is  a  similar  lake  in  the  desert 
region  of  South  Africa. 

CLIMATB  AND  VSGBTATION. 

795.  General  Characteristics. — As  Africa  lies  principally  in  the  Torrid 

Zone,  its   climate  is  hot  and  its  productions   mostly   tropical.      Snow 

never   falls   in   Africa,  excepting   on   the   high   mountains.     The   Atlas, 

Snow,  Cameroons,  and  Abyssinian  peaks  are  frequently  snow-covered;  and 

Kenia  and  Kilima  Njaro  are  capped  with  perpetual  snow. 

796.  In  Equatorial  Africa,  the  zone  of  trade-winds,  the  rainfall  is  excessive.     The 

seasons  are  four  in  number — two  long  and  wet,  when  the  sun  is  vertical;  two  short 

and  dry.     As  in  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  dense  tropical  forests  abound  for  several 

degrees  on  each  side  of  the  Equator.     The  coast  regions  of  equatorial  Africa  are 

excessively  hot,  moist,  and  unhealthy. 

797.  Toward  the  Tropics  the  rainfall  decreases,  and  there  are  but  two  seasons — 
a  long,  dry  winter,  and  a  short,  wet  summer;  and,  in  consequence,  belts  of  grassy 
plains  bound  the  equatorial  forest. 

798.  Lying  upon  Both  Sides  of  Each  Tropic  are  desert  regions — the  Great 

Sahara  at  the  north,  and  a  smaller  desert  at  the  south.     The  only  moist  winds 

in  these  latitudes  are   intercepted  by  the   high   mountains  on   the   east.     Some 

fertile  areas,  called  oases,  occur  in  these  almost  rainless  and  barren  regions.     Fez- 

zan,  one  of  the  largest  oases,  has  a  population  of  100,000.' 

799.  In  the  Extreme  North  the  seasons  and  climate  are  not  unlike  those  of  California. 
During  the  winter  season  (January')  the  anti-trade-winds  prevail,  and  there  is 
abundant  rainfall,  but  the  summers  are  dry. 

800.  In  the  Extreme  Southern  Plateau  the  seasons  are  similar,  but 

reversed  as  to  the  time  of  year. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

801 .  Plants. — Africa  is  the  home  of  the  date  and  oil  palms,  fig  trees, 

and  gum-acacia  trees — especially  in  the  oases  and  tropical  coast  regions. 

Cotton,  rice,  sugar,  cofiee,  millet,  and  beans  are  rudely  cultivated  in  various 

parts  of  the  continent.    The  ba'o  bab,  ebony,  and  gutta-percha  trees  are  natives 

of  the  interior  forests,  and  mangroves  in  the  coast  lowlands. 

802.  Animals.  —  The  hippopotamus,  zebra,  giraffe,  gnu,  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  buffalo, 
and  various  antelopes,  vipers,  and  the  ibis  and  secretar\'-bird  are  peculiar  to  Africa ;  and 
the  rhinoceros,  elephant,  camel,  lion,   leopard,  jackal,   and  crocodile  are  abundant     Cattle, 
sheep,  and  poultry  are  raised  extensively,  and  with  little  care. 

t>03.  Minerals. — Gold  is  abundant  on  the  Guinea  Coast  and  in  the  interior;  the  noted  diamond  mines  of 
Kimberley  are  in  South  Africa.    Copper,  lead,  and  iron  ores  abound,  though  little  efibrt  is  made  to  utilize  them. 


I.  The  Sahara  is  not,  as  is  too  genetally  supposed,  a  continuous  barren  waste  of  sand. 
Its  surface  consists  principally  of  rocky  highlands,  with  intervening  areas  that  are  either 
gravelly  or  covered  by  sands  that  shift  with  the  violent  winds,  called  sitrvems.     The 


temperature  of  the  deserts  is  insnpportably  hot  in  the  daytime:  but.  due  to  the  extreme 
dryness  of  the  air,  the  earth  parts  with  its  heat  rapidly  and  the  night  temperature  often 
falls  below  the  freezing  point. 


AFRICA. 


133 


QTmSTIONS. 

Shape  and  Area. — Describe  the  surface  of  Africa.  Compare  its  area  with 
that  of  Eurasia. 

Relief. — Describe  the  primary  axis  of  Africa.  Is  the  interior  highland  or 
lowland?  In  what  direction  does  it  slope?  Are  the  bordering  momitains 
high  or  low  compared  with  the  interior?  What  of  volcanoes?  Of  earth- 
quakes?   Where  are  the  lowland  regions?    Describe  them. 

Coast-Line. — ^Whyis  the  coast-line  of  Africa  regular? 

Drainage. — Where  is  the  principal  water-shed  of  Africa?  What  great 
rivers  have  their  sources  in  this  water-shed?  What  one  does  not?  Why  is 
navigation  difficult  on  African  rivers?  Do  they  do  much  or  little  erosion? 
Describe  the  lower  course  of  the  Nile.  At  what  season  of  the  year  does 
it  overflow?  Why?  What  effect  has  the  overflow  upon  the  fertility  of 
Egypt? 

Lakes. — Are  the  great  lakes  of  Africa  in  highlands  or  lowlands?  Through 
what  rivers  do  they  discharge?  Describe  Lake  Chad.  How  is  its  freshness 
preserved?    What  is  the  character  of  Lake  Ngami? 

Climate. — In  what  zone  is  most  of  Africa?  Has  it  a  warm  or  cold  climate 
as  a  whole?  What  peaks  have  perpetual  snow-caps?  What  winds  prevail  in 
equatorial  Africa?  Describe  the  seasons  there.  Climate  of  the  coast 
regions.  What  is  the  character  of  the  vegetation  along  the  Equator?  North 
and  south  of  the  equatorial  belt?  Why?  Why  is  the  Sahara  a  desert? 
What  are  oases?  What  is  the  population  of  Fezzan?  Compare  the  climate 
and  seasons  of  the  extreme  north  of  Africa  with  those  of  California.  In 
the  Barbary  States  why  is  the  rainfall  abundant  in  winter?  What  is  the 
character  of  the  climate  in  the  extreme  south?  When  is  it  winter  at  Cape 
Colony?    When  is  the  rainy  season  there? 

Productions. — ^What  important  trees  are  natives  of  Africa?  What  plants 
are  cultivated  there?  What  important  animals  are  found  native  there? 
Where  is  gold  found  in  Africa?  Diamonds?  What  ores  are  abimdant  in 
Africa? 

POLITICAL  DESCRIPTION.' 

804.  Political  Condition. — Politically  Africa  is  in  an  unstable 
condition,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  African  States  are  not  certain. 
There  are  no  African  "nations"  or  "countries"  in  the  sense  in 
which  those  terms  are  used  with  reference  to  civilized  countries. 


SCENE  ON  THE  SUEZ  CANAL. 

805.  Numbers. — Africa  has  a  native  population  of  about  200,- 
000,000.  Many  Europeans  and  their  descendants  are  found  in  the 
coast  regions,  and  Arab  traders  in  great  numbers  are  distributed 
throughout  the  continent. 

1.  Before  reading  this  description,  study  omitted  map  questions,  p.  130. 

2.  A  vertical  shaft  in  the  VaUey  of  the  Nile  would  cut  through  the  relics  of  one  hundred 
find  sixty-eight  generations  of  men — from  4700  B.  C.  to  the  present  time.     At  the  bottom 


806.  Races. — North  of  the  Soudan  the  natives  are  "dark- 
whites."  South  of  the  Sahara  is  the  home  of  the  black  type, 
comprising  numerous  tribes  of  negroes,  among  the  least  advanced 
of  the  world's  inhabitants  in  civilization. . 

FSt'i  5hism*  prevails  in  religion;  the  governments  are  despotic 
monarchies,  each  comprising  one  or  few  tribes;  the  women  are  the 
laborers  in  their  rude  industries,  and  the  men  are  warriors.  Wars 
are  frequent,  usually  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  slaves,  and  often 
result  in  the  annihilation  of  entire  nations.  Savage  customs 
prevail  and  cannibalism  is  not  infrequent. 

FORMTGN  OCCUPATION. 

807.  Much  of  Africa  is  still  "unknown  land."  The  great 
deserts  at  the  north, 
the  unhealthful  coast- 
lands  at  the  east  and 
the  west,  the  innavi- 
gable character  of  the 
rivers,  and  the  savage 
nature  of  the  natives, 
all  retard  exploration 
of  the  interior.  Various 
European  nations  have 
established  claims,  usu- 
ally of  a  commercial 
character,  over  nearly 
all  the  coast  regions;  but  traffic  with  the  interior  is  carried  on 
almost  exclusively  by  Arab  traders. 

808.  Commerce. — Caravans  of  merchants,  whose  goods  are 
carried  by  camels  in  the  north,  and  in  central  Africa  by  slaves, 
penetrate  more  than  2,000  miles  from  the  coast,  exchanging 
trinkets,  fire-arms,  and  brightly  colored  calico  for  ivory,  bstrich 
feathers,  gums,  coffee,  gold-dust,  and  slaves. 

809.  Slave  Trade. — The  coast  trade  in  slaves  is  carried  on 
principally  by  Arabs,  who  stir  up  the  interior  tribes  to  war  upon 
each  other,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  slaves.  In  these  wars 
large  villages  are  sometimes  depopulated,  and  entire  tribes  are 
carried  away  and  sold  into  slavery. 

COUNTRIES. 

810.  Egypt  is  the  oldest  African  State.  In  name  it  is  a  Turkish 
province,  but  Enghsh  influence  is  so  great  that  it  is  virtually  a 
commercial  dependency  of  Great  Britain.  The  ruler  is  called  a 
K/te  dive',  and  is  hereditary.  The  population  numbers  about 
7,000,000.  The  Mohammedan  religion  prevails,  and  schools  are 
established  for  the  higher  classes.  The  lower  classes  are  little 
better  than  slaves. 

The  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  has  served  to  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  frequent  famines  in  Eg^pt.  This  country  was  long 
the  granary  of  the  world,  and  the  seat  of  one  of  the  highest 
civilizations  of  ancient  times.' 

Grain  from  the  fertile  Valley  of  the  Nile,  and  ivory,  ostrich 
feathers,  gums,  and  gold-dust  obtained  from  the  interior,  are 
exported.  Pottery,  fire-arms,  and  carpets  are  manufactured. 
Donkeys  and  camels  are  the  Usual  means  of  travel  and  commerce, 
but  railroads  connect  the  chief  cities. 

Alexandria  is  the  chief  sea-port.  Suez  and  Port  Said  are  the 
termini  of  the  famous  Suez  Canal.  Although  in  Egypt,  this  canal 
belongs  to,  and  is  controlled  by,  England. 

Cairo,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  about  360,000.     It  is 

would  be  ruins  of  serai-barbarian  villages  of  6,000  years  ago,  and  at  the  top  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  City  of  Cairo. 
*fetichUm:  the  worship  of  some  material  object,  as  a  stone,  tree,  reptile,  or  other  animal. 


134 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


the  chief  center  of  trade  and  learning.         % 
It  is  rapidly  becoming   European  -<1 


/ 

?- 


oA/yiicAl/JKUT^ 


"f^ 


A 


^iTril'iif*^  ' "  • 


in  character. 
Near  it  are 
the  Sphinx 
and  the  fa- 
mous pyra- 
mids of  Gi'zeh,  num- 
bering   about    sixty. 
The  ruins  of  ancient 
Memphis  and  Thebes, 
buried  beneath  desert 
sand  and  Nile  mud, 
lie    farther    up    the 
river. 

811.  Nubia,  Dar  fur',  and 
Kardofan  were  provinces 
of  Egj-pt  until  1885.  They 
are  now  virtually  independ- 
ent, though  nominally  under 
British  influence.  Khartum 
is  an  important  center  of 
trade  on  the  Upper  Nile. 

812.  The  Barbary 
States  consist  of  Morocco, 
an  absolute  monarchy  ruled 
by    a    Sultan;    the    French 

provinces  of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  and  the  Turkish 
provinces  of  Tripoli  and  Barka.     The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Moors  and  Berbers,  but  the  progressive 
people  are  the  few  Europ)eans,  Jews,  and  Arabs.     The 
latter  carry  on  most  of  the  commerce.     The  Mohamme 
dan  religion  prevails;  but  the  customs  of  the  people  are 
about  equally  Europ)ean  and  oriental. 

The  principal  industries  are  raising  stock,  grain,  and  fruits. 
Esparto  grass  (used  in  making  paper),  dates,  figs,  hides, 
Morocco  leather,  iron,  lead,  and  copper  are  the  principal 
exports.    Railroads  and  teleg^raph  lines  connect  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  Algeria;    and   an  extensive   caravan  trade  is 
carried  on  between  the  Barbary  States  and  Egypt,  the  Soudan,  and  the  oases  of  the  Sahara. 

813.  Abyssinia  is  a  rugged,  mountainous  kingdom,  on  the  highest  plateau  of  Africa, 
and  has  every  variety  of  climate  and  productions,  except  those  of  the  Frigid  Zones, 
is  occupied  by  a  rude  population  of  Arabs  and  Ethiopians,  professing  Christianity,  but 
almost  continually  at  war  among  themselves.     Agriculture  is  the  leading  industrj-; 
and  coffee,  grains,  and  hides  are  exported. 

1.  Tlia  number  and  me  or  negro  cities  has  long  been  underestimated.  "IbS'dan,  the 
London  of  negro  land,  extends  for  over  six  miles  from  east  to  west  and  for  more  than  three 
miles  from  north  to  south.  Surrounded  by  its  farming  villages,  165  in  number,  Ibadan  counts 
over  300,000  souls,  while  within  the  walls  of  the  city  itself  at  least  120,000  people  are  gathered. 
Its  brown-roofed  huts  cover  an  area  of  nearly  sixteen  square  miles,  and  the  ditches  and  walls  of 
hardened  clay  which  surround  the  city  are  more  than  eighteen  miles  in  circumference."    Seven 


814.  The  Soudan 
is  a  countr>-  of  fertile, 
grassy     plains,     over 
which   wander  herds 
of    buffaloes,    zebras, 
antelopes,  and  cattle. 
Much   of   it   is   densely   populated    by  numerous   native   tribes. 
Some  of  their  towns  are  quite  large,  and  are  protected  by  walls. 
Timbuktu  was  formerly  the  most  important  center  of  trade  and 
learning  in  tropical  Africa.' 
815.  The  Sahara.  —  Politically  this  region   belongs   to   the  no- 
madic tribes  that  occupy  the  oases.     Commerce  is  controlled  by  French 
influence  in  the  west  and  by  Turkish  influence  in  the  east. 

816.  The  Coast  Regions  of  Central  Africa  are  claimed  in 

portions   by   England,    France,   Germany,   Portugal,  and 

Spain,  the  claim  consisting  generally  of  the  exclu- 


sive  right   to  trade  with  the  natives. 
Liberia  is  a  republic  of  liberated  slaves 
the   United  States;    and  Dahomey  and  Ashanti 
are  powerful   native  governments.     From  all  these 

coast  countries  gold,  gums,  coSee,  grains,  ivorj',  and 
5^J^  ostrich  feathers  are  the  principal  exports. 

,    ^       817.  The  Congo  Free  State  is,  by  mutual 

consent  of  the  European   powers,  equally 

open   to  the   trade  of  all;    and   the   King 

of  Belgium  is  appointed  by  treaty  to 

act   as   guardian  of  the  rights  of 

all.     Great    efforts    are    being 

made    to   extend    commerce 

with   this  countrj-,  which 

is  now  known  to  be  a 

region  of  great  natural 

resources. 


other  populous  cities  in  the  small  Yor^u  ba  country  on  the  Guinea  coast  have  pop- 
ulations varying  from  30.000  to  70,000. 


OCEANIA. 


136 


818.  South  Africa.— All  of  the  interior  south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn  is  more  or  less  barren,  excepting  in  the  spring-time; 
but  the  coast  regions  are  fertile  and  productive.  Stock-raising, 
ostrich-farming,  and  diamond-mining  are  the  chief  occupations. 
Cape  Colony  is  a  British  province,  and  exercises  a  sort  of  pro- 
tectorate over  most  of  the  interior.  Orange  Free  State  and 
TrSns  vaal'  are  republics  of  Bo'ers,  the  descendants  of  early  Dutch 
colonists.  The  natives  of  South  Africa 
are  rapidly  acquiring  the  habits  of 
civilization  from  contact  with  the  large 
European  population. 

819.  Zan  zi  bar'  is  an  island  empire 
governed  by  an  Arab  Sultan.  It  is  one 
of  the  principal  points  from  which 
travelers  enter  central  Africa. 

820.  Madagascar  is  one  of  the 
largest  islands  in  the  world,  and  is 
claimed  by  France.  It  exports  India- 
rubber,  gum-copal,  and  arrow-root. 

821.  The  Azores,  Madeira,  and 
Canary  Islands  produce  wine,  oranges, 
and  lemons.  Ascension  Island  and  St. 
Helena  are  naked  volcanic  peaks  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain. 

QUESTIONS. 

People. — What  is  the  native  population  of 
Africa?  What  type  of  man  is  native  to  north- 
ern Africa?  To  central  and  southern  Africa? 
What  is  the  character  of  the  African  negro? 
Of  his  government,  religion,  and  customs? 

Foreign  Occupation. — Where  have  Europe- 
ans established  themselves  in  Africa?  What 
has  prevented  their  access  to  the  interior? 

How  and  by  whom  is  commerce  with  the  interior  carried  on?  What  prod- 
ucts are  obtained  from  the  interior?  Who  carry  on  the  slave  trade?  How 
are  "slaves"  obtained? 

Countries. — Of  the  oldest  African  State,  give:  The  name;  capital;  gov- 
ernment; religion;  condition  of  the  lower  classes;  condition  of  education; 
means  of  travel;  importance  of  Alexandria;  of  Port  Said;  of  Cairo;  exports; 
manufactures;  the  control  of  the  Suez  Canal;  the  location  of  the  pyramids; 
of  the  mines  of  Thebes  and  Memphis.  How  has  the  Nile  contributed  to  the 
prosperity  of  Egypt?  What  is  the  present  political  condition  of  Nubia, 
Darfur,  and  Kardofan?     Of  what  importance  is  Khartum? 

Name  the  Barbary  States.     What  is  the  government  of  each?    To  what 


IN  THE  RAPIDS  OF  THE  CONGO. 


nations  do  the  inhabitants  belong?  What  religion  prevails?  What  are  the 
principal  industries?  Exports?  How  is  commerce  carried  on  with  Egypt? 
With  Soudan?    Which  of  the  Barbary  States  have  railroads? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  country  called  Soudan?  What  animals  are 
abundant  there?  Population  and  towns?  What  foreign  influence  prevails 
in  the  Soudan? 

Where  is  Abyssinia?  What  is  the  character  of  its  climate?  People? 
Religion?    Productions?    What  are  its  exports? 

What  is  the  political  condition  of  the 
Sahara?    How  is  its  commerce  controlled? 

What  European  governments  have  estab- 
lished claims  upon  the  east  and  west  coast 
regions  of  Africa?  Products  of  these  regions? 
What  of  Liberia?    Dahomey?    Ashanti? 

What  is  the  political  condition  of  the  Congo 
Free  State?  What  river  furnishes  entrance 
to  this  part  of  Africa  from  the  west?  From 
the  east? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  interior  of 
South  Africa?  Of  the  coast  region  of  South 
Africa?  What  important  British  province  in 
South  Africa?  What  two  republics?  What 
are  the  principal  occupations  of  the  people? 
Where  are  diamonds  found? 

What  kind  of  government  has  Zanzibar? 
Of  what  importance  is  Zanzibar  to  travelers 
to  the  interior  of  Africa? 

What  country  claims  Madagascar?  What 
are  its  exports? 

What  are  the  productions  of  the  Madeira 
and  Canary  islands?  What  two  volcanic 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain  are  in  the 
Atlantic  west  of  Africa? 

Thought  Questions. — Why  is  the  coast- 
line of  Africa  more  regular  than  that  of 
Eurasia? 

[See  Physical  Map.]  Would  an  elevation 
of  i,ooo  feet  affect  the  size  of  Africa  much 
or  little?  A  sinking  of  8oo  feet?  Compare  it 
with  North  America  in  this  respect.  What 
would  be  the  effect  of  an  elevation  of  i,ooo  feet  upon  the  straits  of  Gibraltar 
and  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  the  Red  and  Mediterranean  seas?  If  the  mountains 
of  eastern  Africa  were  as  high  as  the  Andes,  how  would  it  affect  the  climate 
of  equatorial  Africa?  If  all  of  Asia  were  ocean  how  would  it  affect  the 
climate  of  Sahara?  Can  any  of  Sahara  be  submerged  by  means  of  a  canal 
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea?  What  change  of  climate  would  give  Lake  Chad 
an  outlet  to  the  ocean?  Do  the  ocean-currents  of  tropical  regions  have  much 
or  little  effect  upon  the  climate  of  equatorial  Africa?  Why?  Why  does 
the  southern  isotherm  of  70°  bend  northward  along  the  western  coast  of 
Africa?  How  does  it  happen  that  oases  exist  in  desert  regions?  Why  has 
Algeria  more  railroads  than  Tripoli  has? 


OCEANIA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

822.  Subdivisions. — Oceania  comprises  tlie  continent  of  Aus- 
tralia, the  continental  islands  on  the  northwest/  and  the  oceanic 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  For  convenience  of  study  it  is  divided 
into  Australasia,  Malaysia,  and  Polynesia. 


823.  Extension  of  Mountain-Systems.— Most  of  the  islands 
of  Oceania  are  the  tops  of  a  partially  submerged  mountain-system, 
trending  southeasterly  from  India  to  ioo°  west  longitude.* 

824.  Coral  Formations.— Nearly  all  land-surfaces  in  Oceania 
are  bordered  more  or  less  by  coral-reefs;  and  some  of  the  oceanic 
islands  consist  entirely  of  coral  formation.* 


1.  The  Sunda  Islands,  Philippine  Islands,  Borneo,  Celebes,  PSp'ua,  and  many  smaller 
islands  lying  among  those  above  named,  are  called  the  East  Indies, 

2.  This  mountain-system  is  highest  at  the  west.  The  islands  east  of  i8o°  rise  from 
deep  ocean  and  barely  project  above  the  surface,  while  in  the  west  the  channels  between 
the  islands  are  often  less  than  500  feet  deep,  and  the  mountain-peaks  rise  from  5,000  to 
13,000  feet  high. 

Many  of  the  raountatn-peaks  of  Oceania  are  active  volcanoes,  and  earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent and  violent. 

3.  Coral  Is  a  stony  material  secreted  by  polyps.  These  animals  are  simple  in  structure, 
having  no  well-developed  organs  excepting  a  stomach.  The  top  of  each  individual  con- 
sists of  a  flower-shaped  expansion  of  thread-like  organs  surrounding  the  mouth.    They  are 


generally  attached  to  the  rocks;  and,  because  of  their  variegated  coloring,  have  been 
called  the  "flowers  of  the  sea,"  They  live  principally  in  tropical  waters,  and  grow  in 
branching,  plant-like  colonies,  and  they  build  as  they  grow  a  branching  and  interlacing 
structure  of  coral.  This  finally  reaches  the  surface  and  forms  a  reef,  which,  in  course  of 
time,  becomes  covered  with  a  soil  of  pulverized  coral  mixed  with  ocean-drift,  and  pro- 
duces a  more  or  less  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation.  The  coral  reefs  are  necessarily  near 
shore,  as  most  polyps  do  not  thrive  at  a  greater  depth  than  200  feet.  Coral  formation 
often  extends  to  a  depth  of  several  thousand  feet,  due  to  the  gradual  sinking  of  the 
inclosed  island  as  the  coral  grows  upward,  until  the  island  disappears  and  a  ring-shaped 
coral  reef,  called  an  a  toll' ,  is  formed.  The  existence  of  numerous  atolls  there,  leads  to  the 
belief  that  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  gradually  sinking. 


136 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


MAP   QUESTIONS. 

[Answer  from  the  open  map.] 

Position. — In  which  hemisphere  is  most  of  O  ce  (she)  a'ni  a,  the  Eastern 
or  the  Western?  Northern  or  Southern?  In  which  hemisphere  is  Australia, 
Eastern  or  Western?  Northern  or  Southern?  In  what  direction  is  Australia 
from  Eurasia?  From  Africa?  From  South  America?  From  North  America? 
In  which  ocean  is  most  of  Oceania?  What  ocean  at  the  south  of  it?  West? 
In  what  zone  is  most  of  Oceania?  In  what  zone  is  New  Zealand?  Taj- 
ma'ni  a?  The  Philippine  Islands?  The  Sandwich  Islands?  In  what  two 
zones  is  Australia?  In  which  zone  is  most  of  Australia?  Compare  Australia 
with  Argentine  and  South  Africa  in  regard  to  latitude.  In  about  what  lati- 
tude and  longitude  are  the  Feejee  Islands?  The  Samoan  Islands?  The 
Sandwich  Islands?  Where  is  New  Guinea?  The  Celebes?  Borneo?  Java? 
Name  the  Sunda  Islands. 

Mountains  — Which  half  of  Australia  is  most  mountainous,  the  eastern  or 
the  western?     Do  the  mountain-systems  of  Australia  generally  trend  from  . 
north  to  south  or  from  east  to  west?     Name  three  peaks  in  Australia.     Two 
in  New  Zealand.    One  in  Ha  wai'  i. 

[See  Relief  Map.]  Where  are  the  highest  mountains  in  Australia?  Is  the 
interior  generally  a  mountainous  or  a  plain  region? 

[See  Physical  Map.]  On  which  coast  is  the  primary  highland  of  Australia, 
the  eastern  or  the  western?  Along  which  of  these  coasts  is  the  coast  low- 
land widest?  Compare  Australia  with  Africa  and  with  South  America  in 
regard  to  the  position  of  its  primary  highland. 

Is  there  much  or  little  shallow  ocean  around  Australia?  What  large 
island  at  the  north  separated  from  Australia  by  shallow  ocean?  What  one 
at  the  south?  Are  the  larger  islands  of  Oceania  in  deep  or  shallow  ocean? 
Are  they  mountainous  or  level?  Are  there  any  elevations  above  10,000  feet 
in  Australia?    In  New  Guinea?    What  islands  have  many  volcanoes? 

Drainage. — [See  Political  Map  of  Oceania.]  What  interior  river-system 
in  Australia?  What  interior  lake?  What  great  river-system  in  the  south- 
east?    Describe  the  Murray  River.     The  Darling  River. 

Coast-Line. — Which  coasts  of  Australia  are  regular  and  which  are  irreg- 
ular? What  peninsula  and  cape  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  primary 
mountain-axis  of  Australia?  What  island  and  cape  at  the  southern  extrem- 
ity?    Beginning  at  Cape  York  and  going  westerly,  name,  in  their  order, 


Take  up  next,  the  map  exercises  on  Oceania  in  connection  with: 

(i)  The  Map  of  Ocean-Currents,  p.  27;  (2)  The  Maps  of  Thermal  Zones, 
p.  22;  (3)  The  Maps  of  Barometric  Pressure,  p.  25;  (4)  The  Map  of  Rain- 
fall, p.  26. 


and  give  the  location  of  all  the  capes  passed  in  going  around  Australia. 
All  the  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  and  straits.  What  strait  separates  Sumatra  from 
Eurasia?  From  Java?  What  strait  separates  Australia  from  New  Guinea? 
Prom  Tasmania? 


Exercises  and  Problems. — Determine  the  distance  from  San  Francisco  to 
Honolulu.  To  Auckland.  To  Sydney.  From  Sydney  to  Adelaide.  From 
Sydney  to  Perth.  Compare  the  distance  from  Sydney  to  Perth  with  the 
distance  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

Political  Oceania. — [With  the  exception  of  Australia,  which  belongs  to 
England,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  which  are  independent,  red  color 
indicates  British  possessions;  buff  color,  Dutch;  j'ellow  color,  German;  and 
green  color,  Spanish.] 

Where  is  Malaysia?  Australasia?  Polynesia?  Mel  a  ne'sia?  Micronesia? 
What  large  islands  belong  to  the  Dutch?  To  Spain?  Partly  to  the  Dutch? 
Partly  to  Great  Britain?  Partly  to  German}-?  To  what  country  does  New 
Zealand  belong?  Tasmania?  Java?  The  Philippine  Islands?  To  what 
country  does  most  of  Malaysia  belong? 

Name  and  give  the  location  of  each  of  the  six  provinces  into  which 
Australia  is  divided.  What  is  the  capital  of  Queensland?  Of  New  South 
Wales?  Of  Victoria?  Of  South  Australia?  Of  West  Australia?  Which 
provinces  of  Australia  have  railroads?  W^hat  islands  in  Oceania  have 
railroads? 

What  is  the  capital  of  New  Zealand?  Of  Tasmania?  Of  the  Sandwich 
Islands?  Of  Java?  Of  the  Philippine  Islands?  Where  is  Singapore? 
How  do  Melbourne  and  San  Francisco  compare  in  latitude?  Wellington 
and  New  York?     Brisbane  and  New  Orleans? 


825.  Climate. — As  the  islands  of  Oceania  lie  almost  wholly  in 
the  Torrid  Zone — the  zone  of  trade-winds — they  have,  for  the  most 
part,  a  hot  and  moist  climate.  The  western  slopes  of  the  mount- 
ainous islands  are  often  rainless  and  more  or  less  barren.  No 
snow  falls  in  Oceania  outside  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  and 
there  only  in  the  mountain  regions. 


826.  The  Vegetation  of  the  islands  is  rich  and  luxuriant,  and 
characteristic  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  Bananas,  bread-fruit,  cocoa- 
nuts,  oranges,  spices,  etc.,  are  ever>-where  produced  by  the  native 
inhabitants,  and  where  European  nations  have  obtained  a  foot- 
hold the  cultivation  of  sugar,  cofifee,  cotton,  rice,  and  hemp  has 
been  introduced. 


OCEANIA. 


137 


827.  The  Animal 
Life  of  Oceania  is 
limited  on  land  in 
both  quantity  and 
kinds.  Few  mam- 
mals or  large  animals 
of  any  kind  occur, 
excepting  in  Austra- 
lia and  Malaysia ; 
but  fish  and  tropical 
sea-life  abound  in 
the  shallow  waters 
within  the  reefs. 

828.  The  Native 
Inhabitants  of  Oce- 
ania are  all  of  the 
black  or  yellow  type. 
The  Malaysians, 
Polynesians,  and 
Micronesians  belong 
to  the  yellow  type. 
The  natives  of  Aus-. 
tralia,  Melanesia, 
and  the  interiors  of 
other  islands  belong 
to  the  black  type. 

The  natives  are 
barbarians  or  savages 
in  development — 
some  are  still  canni- 
bals; their  govern- 
ments are  tribal,  and 
their  religion  is  feti- 
chism.  Traders  and 
missionaries  are  es- 
tablished on  many  of 
the  islands;  and  the 
natives,  especially  of 
Polynesia  and  Ma- 
laysia, are  adopting 
the  industries,  cus- 
toms, and  religions 
of  civilization. 

AUSTRAI^ASIA. 

Australia,  Tasma- 
nia, New  Zealand, 
Melanesia,  and  Mi- 
cronesia are  included 
in  Australasia. 

829.  Australia.— 
Continental  Charac- 
ter.— Australia  is  a 
true  continent,  hav- 
ing an  elevated  border.  L,ike  Africa,  its  principal  mountain-axis  is 
in  the  east.  The  interior  is  a  plateau,  more  or  less  broken  by  short 
mountain-ranges;  it  has  been  explored  less  than  any  other  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface  outside  of  the  Frigid  Zones. 

Drainage. — The  coast  rivers  are  short  and  rapid;  those  of  the 
interior  are  longer,  but  many  of  them  are  but  dry  channels  during 
part  of  the  year.     The  Murray  and  Darling  rivers  are  navigable. 

1.  Great  forests   of  these  trees  prevail  on   the  eastern  slope,  gradually  changing  to 
"scrub"    and  "salt-bush"  in  the  interior.    There  are  no  native  edible  grains,  and  but 


Climate. — The  climate  is  tropical  and  mild-temperate.  Snow 
falls  only  in  the  higher  mountains.  The  rainfall  is  received  from 
the  trade-winds  in  the  east  and  the  anti-trade-winds  in  the  south 
and  southwest;  but  the  interior  is  almost  as  rainless  and  unpro- 
ductive as  the  Sahara.     Why  ? 

Vegetation. — Many  peculiar  forms  of  vegetation  occur — tree 
ferns,  A  rau  ca'ri  an  pines,  and  many  varieties  of  en  ca  lyp'tus.' 

few  native  fruits;  but  nearly  all  the  cereals  and  fruits  of  the  Temperate  Zone  are  culti- 
vated successfully. 


138 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Animals  of  Australia  are  of  a  type  peculiar  to  itself  and 
the  adjacent  islands.  The  ferocious  and  large  mammals  of  Asia 
and  Africa  are  unknown.  Kangaroos,  wallabies,  and  wombats  are 
hunted  bj-  the  natives  for  their  flesh  and  pelts,  and  the  emu,  a 
species  of  ostrich,  for  its  eggs  and  feathers. 

Productions,  Exports,  Cotntnerce. — The  productive  portions  of 
the  continent — the  eastern,  southern,  southeastern,  and  south- 
western coasts — are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Sheep-raising  is 
the  chief  industrj-;  agriculture  is  thriving,  and  the  gold  mines  of 
Australia  are  the  richest  in  the  world,  excepting  those  of  the 
United  States.  Wool,  frozen  mutton,  silver,  and  gold  are  the 
principal  exports.  Australian  wool  ranks  with  the  best  in  the 
world.  Railroads  connect  the  principal  cities;  and  steamship  lines 
extend  to  San  Francisco,  and,  via  the  Suez  Canal,  to  Liverpool, 
Havre(ha'v'r),  and  Bremen. 

People  and  Government. — The  native  Australians — about  75,000 
in  number — are  the  lowest  representatives  of  the  human  race.' 
The  white  population  numbers  about  3,000,000.  Australia  is  a 
British  possession,  consisting  of  five  provinces — Queensland,  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  AustraUa  (including  North  Austra- 
lia and  Alexandra  Land),  and  West  Australia.  The  Governor  of 
each  is  appointed  by  the  British  Crown;  but  each  elects  its  own 
ParUament  and  makes  its  own  laws. 

Cities. — Melbourne  and  Sydney  are  the  most  important  cities. 
Each  has  a  population  greater  than  that  of  San  Francisco. 

830.  Tasmania.  —  The  Island  of  Tasmania  is  a  prosperous 
British  colony  with  a  population  of  140,000.  Its  industries,  prod- 
ucts, and  exports  are  like  those  of  Australia.  Fruit — especially 
apples — and  tin  are  also  exported. 

831.  New  Zealand  is  a  mountain-range  consisting  of  two  large 
islands  and  several  smaller  ones.  Geysers,  hot  springs,  and  other 
volcanic  phenomena  abound.  The  climate  is  verj'  mild,  excepting 
in  the  mountains,  and  fine  pasturage  is  abundant.  The  exports 
and  industries  are  like  those  of  southeastern  Australia.  Large 
quantities  of  excellent  mutton  are  shipped — frozen — to  England. 

The  native  people — the  Ma 6ri§ — are  among  the  highest  repre- 
sentatives of  the  yeUow  typ)e,  and  are  rapidlj'  acquiring  ci\'ilization. 
They  are  especially  remarkable  for  their  skill  in  tattooing  and 
carving. 

New  Zealand  is  a  British  province,  governed  like  those  of  Aus- 
tralia. Wellington,  the  capital,  is  noted  for  its  export  of  coal. 
Auckland  is  the  chief  commercial  port. 

832.  Melanesia. — Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  is  a  large  island,  of 
which  little  is  known.  It  is  claimed  in  parts  by  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland.  The  natives  are  black  savages  of  a  low  t3-pe, 
and  very  hostile  to  strangers.  They  live  in  grass-covered  houses, 
often  constructed  upon  piles.  Tropical  fruits  and  pearls  are  the 
principal  exports.     The  Bird  of  Paradise  is  found  only  in  Papua. 

The  natives,  productions,  climate,  and  exports  of  the  other 
Melanesian  islands  are  similar  to  those  of  Papua. 

833.  The  Micronesian  Islands  are  principally  coral  reefs, 
inhabited  by  savage  tribes  related  to  the  Malays.  They  produce 
and  export  tropical  fruits. 

MAliAYSIA. 

834.  Subdivisions. — Malaysia  comprises  the  Philippine  Islands, 
belonging  to  Spain;  the  Sunda  Islands,  Spice  Islands,  and  Celebes, 

1.  Tbese  natlTSS  are  exceedingrly  black  and  repulsive  in  appearance;  they  have  no  form 
of  ffovernment,  and  are  almost  devoid  of  religion.  They  are  nomadic,  and,  excepting 
as  they  become  civilized,  do  not  cultivate  the  soil  nor  herd  floclcs.  They  go  naked, 
or  nearly  so,  and  either  houseless  or  live  in  rude  huts  three  or  four  feet  high,  made  of 
bark  or  boughs;  they  feed  on  roots,  emu  eggs,  insects,  snakes,  fish,  and  such  other  animals 
as  they  can  kill  with  their  rude  weapons;  and  cannibalism  still  exists  among  them.  In 
common  with  most  blacks,  they  acquire  civilization  very  slowly. 


belonging  to  Holland;  and  Borneo,  belonging  partly  to  Holland 
and  partly  to  England. 

835.  Physical  Features. — All  these  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  subject  to  violent  earthquakes,  and  they  contain  more  active 
volcanoes  than  anj'  other  equal  area  in  the  world. 

836.  Climate. — These  islands  lie  near  the  Equator,  and  conse- 
quentl}-  have  an  exceedingly  hot  and  moist  climate,  verj-  unhealthy 
for  whites,  but  apparently  congenial  for  the  Malays.  At  certain 
seasons  of  the  j-ear  terrific  hurricanes,  called  typhoons,  occur. 
They  are  ver>'  destructive  to  life  and  property,  and  make  navigation 
of  the  adjacent  seas  exceedingly  dangerous. 

837.  Plants  and  Animals. — Dense  forests  of  valuable  woods 
and  a  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation  abound.  The  animals  are 
similar  to  those  of  India;  but  the  more  ferocious  mammals  are 
wanting  or  uncommon.  The  panther,  rhinoceros,  and  crocodile 
occur  native,  and  the  elephant  has  been  introduced.  Birds  of 
bright  plumage  are  abundant.  In  Borneo  the  o  i^ng'  pu  tSng' — 
unknown  elsewhere  —  and  numerous  apes  and  monkeys  are 
found. 

838.  Population. — Malaysia  contains  one  half  of  the  60,000,000 
inhabitants  of  Oceania — mostlj'  Malays.  They  are  industrious  and 
intelligent,  and  have  adopted  manj-  of  the  ways  of  civilization. 
The  Mohammedan  religion  prevails.  The  chief-  occupations  are 
farming,  mining,  and  pearl-diving. 

839.  Productions. — Tropical  fruits,  spices,  cocoa-nuts,  cofice, 
sugar,  rice,  sago,  camphor,  indigo,  tobacco,  trepangs,*  edible 
bird's-nests,*  ebon^-,  teak,  sandal-wood,  dj-e-woods.  gutta-percha. 
India-rubber,  tin,  mercurj',  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  bismuth  are 
the  principal  exports.  Rich  diamond  mines  are  found  in  Borneo 
and  Celebes. 

840.  The  Sunda  Islands  are  the  best  known  of  the  Malaysian 
groups,  and  their  native  inhabitants  are  the  most  highly  civilized 
of  all  the  Malays. 

Java  is  the  most  valuable  tropical  island  in  the  world.  With  an 
area  of  about  50,000  square  miles — less  than  one  third  that  of  Cali- 
fornia— it  has  a  population  of  21,500,000 — nearly  one  third  that 
of  the  whole  United  States;  and,  although  a  large  portion  of  the 
interior  of  the  island  is  still  uncultivated,  a  rich  export  trade  is 
carried  on  with  Holland,  England,  and  the  United  States.  Several 
thousand  whites — Dutch  and  English — Uve  in  the  cooler  and 
healthier  mountain  cUmate  of  the  interior.  Batavia,  the  chief  citj', 
is  the  capital  and  commercial  center  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in 
the  East  Indies. 

Sumatra  is  almost  as  large  as  California,  but  its  population  and 
exports  are  far  below  those  of  Java. 

841.  Celebes  and  the  Spice  Islands  are  noted  for  the  abun- 
dance of  spices  they  export. 

842.  Borneo  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  excepting  Green- 
land; it  has  an  area  nearly  double  that  of  California.  There  are 
rich  mines  in  its  mountainous  interior,  and  thriving  plantations  on 
its  fertile  coast-plains.     Sa  ra  wak'  is  the  chief  city.' 

843.  The  Philippine  Islands  are  Spain's  richest  possession. 
Manila,  the  capital,  is  noted  for  its  exports  of  hemp,  rape,  and 
tobacco.  The  Negri' tog,  a  diminutive  black  race,  live  in  the 
interior. 

2.  The  DyakB,  a  native  black  race,  are  found  in  the  interior.  Although  a  superior  race 
in  many  respects,  they  still  practice  the  savage  custom  of  cutting  off  and  carrying  home 
the  heads  of  all  enemies  slain  in  battle  or  in  private  feud.  This  practice  is  called  keaJ- 
hunting.    A  man's  social  distinction  depends  upon  the  number  of  heads  he  has  captured. 

*trepang:  a  sea-slug,  or  snail. 

'rdibh  Hrifs-ntst:  the  nest  of  a  small  swallow.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg,  and 
resembles  isinglass.    It  is  of  delicate  taste,  and  is  mixed  with  soups. 


OCEANIA. 


139 


POLYNESIA. 

844.  Subdivisions. — The  principal  island  groups  of  Polynesia 
are  the  Hawaiian,  Samoan,  and  Feejee,  all  situated  on  the  line  of 
travel  from  San  Francisco  to  Sydney;  but  others  are  rapidly  gain- 
ing in  commercial  importance. 

845.  The  Hawaiian,  or  Sandwich  Islands,  lie  upon  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer,  2,000  miles  from  San  Francisco.  They  form  an 
isolated  volcanic  mountain-system  rising  from  deep  ocean  and 
reaching  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Upon  Hawaii, 
the  largest  island  of  the  group,  are  the  two  largest  active  volcanic 
craters  in  the  world — Mau(mow)na  Lo'a  and  Ki  lau  e'a. 

The  climate  is  exceedingly  salubrious,  and  the  soil — decomposed 
lava — is  very  fertile.  Cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa-nuts, 
yams,  sweet-potatoes,  and  taro  are  produced,  and  raw  sugar  is 
exported,  principally  to  the  United  States.  Poi,  a  sort  of  porridge 
made  from  the  taro  root,  and  fish,  are  the  chief  food  of  the  natives. 

The  natives,  called  Kanakas,  are  a  high  type  of  Malays.  They 
have  adopted  a  civilized  form  of  government,  similar  to  that  of 
the  United  States,  with  a  hereditary  King  instead  of  a  President. 
Nearly  all  are  professing  Chri.stians,  and  public  schools  are  estab- 
lished. They  are  not  an  industrious  people,  and  Chinese  have 
almost  monopolized  the  labor  of  the  island. 

Honolulu,  the  capital,  a  city  of  about  20,000,  is  situated  on  the 
island  of  Oahu(wa'hoo).  It  is  an  important  whaling  and  coaling 
station,  and  carries  on  considerable  commerce  with  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

846.  The  Samoans  have  an  independent  government — a  mon- 
archy— under  the  joint  protection  of  England,  German^,  and  the 
United  States.  A'pi  a  is  the  principal  island.  Cocoa-nut  oil, 
arrow-root,  and  cotton  are  exported. 

A  native  war  in  1888  attracted  more  special  attention  to  these 
islands.  Since  then  their  commercial  importance  has  increased 
to  such  an  extent  that  Apia  is  now  a  stopping-place  of  oceanic 
steamship  lines. 

847.  The  Feejee  Islands  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Sugar, 
cotton,  and  tropical  fruits  are  exported. 

848.  Tahiti  (tahee'tee),  one  of  the  Society  Islands,  exports 
oranges,  bananas,  pine-apples,  cocoa-nuts,  and  other  tropical  fruits. 

QUMSTIONS. 

What  continent  in  Oceania?  What  island  groups?  Name  the  subdivisions 
of  Oceania.  To  what  mountain-system  do  most  of  the  islands  01  Oceania 
belong?    Where  are  coral  reefs  found? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  climate  of  most  of  the  islands  of  Oceania? 
Why?  Which  slope  of  mountainous  islands  is  rainless.  Why?  Where  in 
Oceania  does  snow  fall?  What  is  the  character  of  the  vegetation  of  Oceania? 
Of  its  animal  life?  To  what  types  do  the  natives  belong?  Which  belong 
to  the  yellow  type?  To  the  black  type?  What  is  the  general  character  of 
the  native  peoples  of  Oceania?  Of  their  governments?  Of  their  religions? 
What  effect  does  contact  with  civilized  peoples  have  upon  them? 

Australasia. — Why  is  Australia  a  continent?  Compare  it  with  the  United 
States  in  area.     Where  is  its  principal  mountain-axis?    What  is  the  char- 


acter of  the  interior?  What  is  the  character  of  the  coast  rivers?  Of  the 
interior  rivers?  What  are  the  two  most  important  rivers  of  Australia? 
What  of  the  climate  of  Australia?  Where  does  snow  fall?  What  winds 
bring  rain  to  the  eastern  coast?  To  the  western  coast?  What  part  of 
Australia  is  rainless?  Name  some  of  the  peculiar  forms  of  vegetation  in 
Australia.  Of  animal  life.  What  is  the  native  population  of  Australia? 
The  white  population?  What  is  the  character  of  the  natives?  To  what 
country  does  Australia  belong?  Into  how  many  provinces  is  it  divided? 
Describe  the  government.  How  are  the  laws  made?  What  attempt  at 
federation  has  been  made?  What  are  the  principal  industries  of  Australia? 
The  principal  exports?  With  what  cities  is  foreign  commerce  carried  on? 
Name  the  two  most  important  cities  of  Australia.  Compare  them  with 
San  Francisco  in  regard  to  population.  To  what  country  does  Tasmania 
belong?  What  is  its  population?  What  are  its  industries?  Its  exports? 
Describe  New  Zealand.  Describe  its  climate.  What  are  its  principal  indus- 
tries? Its  exports?  What  are  the  natives  called?  Of  what  type  are  they? 
Compare  them  with  others  of  the  same. type.  What  is  the  government  of 
New  Zealand?  Capital?  For  what  is  Auckland  important?  What  is  the 
political  condition  of  New  Guinea?  Describe  the  natives  and  their  houses. 
What  are  its  exports?  What  is  the  character  of  the  Micronesian  islands? 
Of  the  natives?    Of  the  exports? 

Malaysia. — What  islands  are  comprised  in  Malaysia?  What  is  the  phys- 
ical character  of  these  islands?  Describe  the  climate.  The  vegetation. 
Name  the  principal  animals  of  Malaysia.     What  of  the  orang-outang? 

What  is  the  population  of  Malaysia?  Compare  it  with  the  population  of 
all  of  Oceania.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Malays?  What  religion  pre- 
vails?    Principal  occupations?     Principal  exports? 

Which  of  the  Malaysian  islands  have  the  most  extensive  commerce  with 
civilized  peoples?     Compare  their  inhabitants  with  other  Malays. 

Describe  Java.    What  is  its  area  as  compared  with  California?    Its  popula- 
tion as  compared  with  the  United  States?  What  is  the  chief  city  of  Malaysia? 
Compare  Sumatra  with  Java  in  regard  to  area  and  importance. 
Compare  Borneo  with  Greenland  in  size.     With  California.     To  what  two 
countries  does  it  belong?    What  industry  prevails  in  the  interior?    Along 
the  coasts?    Describe  the  Dyaks. 

To  what  country  do  the  Philippine  Islands  belong?  What  is  the  capital 
city?    The  principal  exports?     Describe  the  Negritos. 

Polynesia. — What  are  the  principal  island  groups  of  Polynesia?  Why  are 
they  of  importance?  Where  are  the  Sandwich  Islands?  How  far  from  San 
Francisco?  What  of  the  climate?  Of  the  soil?  What  are  the  principal 
productions?  What  is  the  principal  export  to  the  United  States?  Describe 
the  Kanakas.  Their  government.  What  is  the  capital  city?  For  what  is 
it  important?  What  is  the  political  condition  of  Samoa?  What  is  the  prin- 
cipal island?  What  are  its  exports?  To  what  country  do  the  Feejee  Islands 
belong?    What  do  they  export?    Where  is  Tahiti?    What  are  its  exports? 

Thought  Questions. — ^Why  has  central  Australia  less  rainfall  than  eastern 
Australia?  Does  the  rainfall  of  Sydney  come  from  trade-winds  or  anti-trade- ' 
winds?  The  rainfall  of  Perth?  Of  Adelaide?  If  there  were  no  mountains 
in  eastern  Australia,  what  change  would  be  produced  in  the  climate  of 
central  Australia?  Which  is  most  influenced  by  ocean-currents,  the  climate 
of  northern  Australia  or  that  of  southern  Australia?  Why?  On  which 
side  of  Polynesian  islands  would  you  expect  to  find  most  villages?  Why? 
Is  the  climate  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  more  equable  or  less  so  than  the 
climate  of  the  same  latitude  in  the  interior  of  North  America?  Why?  Why 
are  volcanoes  numerous  in  Java?  What  large  islands  of  Malaysia  would 
be  added  to  Eurasia  by  an  elevation  of  1,000  feet?  What  two  would  be 
added  to  Australia?  During  what  months  is  it  winter  at  Sydney?  In  what 
direction  would  your  shadow  fall  at  noon  in  Auckland?  In  Honolulu? 
Where  in  Oceania  could  you  get  spices?  Kangaroos?  Emus?  Birds  of 
Paradise?  Diamonds?  Cocoa-nuts?  Duck-bills?  What  does  California  get 
from  Tahiti?    From  Australia?    From  Hawaii? 


QUESTIONS    ON    COMMERCIAL    MAP    OF    THE    WORLD." 

[To  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 


Length  of  Days  and  Degrees  of  Longitude. — What  is  the  length  of  the 
longest  day  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon?  At  Rio  Janeiro?  At  Mazatlan? 
At  Calcutta?  At  Canton?  At  St.  Petersburg?  At  the  north  of  Iceland? 
How  long  is  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon?  In  the 
latitude  of  St.  Petersburg?  How  much  shorter  is  the  distance  around  the 
world  in  the  latitude  of  St.  Petersburg  than  on  the  Equator?    At  what  season 


of  the  year  is  the  day  eighteen  hours  long  at  St.  Petersburg?    How  long  is 
the  same  day  120°  south  of  St.  Petersburg? 

Adaptation  to  International  Commerce. — What  regions  of  Eurasia  are  at 
present  engaged  in  international  commerce?  About  what  proportion  of  the 
whole  continent?  What  regions  of  Africa  are  so  engaged?  About  what 
proportion  of  the  whole  continent?    What  regions  of  North  America,  and 


1.  Before  attempting  to  answer  these  questions,  study  carefully  the  explanations  at  the  bottom  of  the  map. 


tP.H. 


SP.Jt. 


10  P.M. 


IZlridiilcht 


SA.lt. 


a.  D.  SWTOM,  Xng-B.  N.  Z. 


142 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


about  what  proportion  of  the  whole  continent?  Of  South  America?  Of 
Australia?  What  regions  of  each  of  these  continents,  and  what  proportion 
of  each,  are  capable  of  commercial  development,  but  are,  as  yet,  undeveloped? 
What  regions,  and  what  proportion,  of  each  continent  are  open  to  commerce 
only  during  the  summer  months?  What  regions,  and  what  proportion,  of  each 
are  incapable  of  commercial  development?  From  these  studies,  estimate, 
as  well  as  you  can,  what  proportion  of  the  territory  of  the  whole  earth  is 
engaged  in  international  commerce.  Estimate,  also,  as  well  as  you  can, 
the  proportion  of  the  population  of  the  world  so  engaged.  How  do  the 
intelligence  and  enterprise  of  nations  engaged  in  international  commerce 
compare  with  these  qualities  in  nations  not  so  engaged?  Upon  what,  do  you 
think,  does  the  development  of  international  commerce  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Amazon  and  in  central  Africa  depend? 

Classification  of  Exports. — Make  a  table  showing  the  localitj'  from  which 
the  different  food  products  are  exported,  according  to  the  following  model:' 

Food  Exports. 


Articles.                                                          Cocntriks. 

Fish, 

Wheat, 

Etc. 

United  States,  Canada,  Greenland. 

Make  a  similar  table  showing  the  locality  from  which  the  clothing  prod- 
ucts are  exjxjrted.  Medicinal  products.  Building  products.  Fuel  products. 
Precious  metals.  Mineral  products  of  all  kinds.  Vegetable  products  of  all 
kinds.  Animal  products  of  all  kinds.  Raw  products  of  all  kinds.  Manu- 
factured products  of  all  kinds.  Which  continent  exports  more  kinds  of  food 
products,  Africa  or  South  America?     Europe  or  the  United  States? 

A  Trip  Around  the  World. — Start  at  New  York  and  trace  the  steamship 
line  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  the  Mediterranean,  Red,  and  Arabian 
seas  to  Bombay;  from  Bombay  by  rail  to  Calcutta;  from  Calcutta  around  the 
southeastern  point  of  the  Eurasian  Continent;  thence  northeasterly  along 
the  coast  to  Yokohama;  thence  east  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  from  San  Francisco  by  rail  to  New  York.  Start  again  from  New 
York  on  the  same  line — at  what  point  will  you  be  in  15  days?  In  30  days? 
In  35  days?  In  60  days?  In  75  days?  How  much  longer  to  complete  the 
trip? 

Miscellaneous. — At  what  ports  could  a  ship  take  a  cargo  of  India-rubber? 
Of  coffee?  Of  rice?  Of  spices?  Of  tea?  Which  ocean  is  most  traveled 
over?  What  part  of  that  ocean?  Name  the  chief  western  ports  of  America. 
Of  Africa.  What  is  the  chief  article  of  export  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  to 
San  Francisco?  From  Yokohama?  Make  a  list  of  all  island  exports. 
Which  of  these  are  not  also  continental  exjjorts?  What  continental  exports 
are  not  also  island  exports? 


MAP-SKETCHING    AND    SAND-MODELING. 


Sketching  and  modeling  should  be  used  as  an  aid  in  obtaining  correct 
geographical  conceptions  and  as  a  means  of  expressing  or  representing  con- 
ceptions. Pupils  should  at  first  sketch  and  model  natural  features  of  the 
country  within  the  limits  of  their  observations — as  a  single  mountain,  a 
group  of  mountains,  a  portion  of  a  mountain-chain,  a  canon,  a  valley,  a  por- 
tion of  a  plain,  or  part  of  the  bed  of  a  stream.  (See  Chapter  V,  in  "Child 
and  Nature,"  by  Alex.  E.  Frye.) 

In  sketching  require  pupils  to  draw  outlines  of  mountains,  cross-sections 
of  valleys  and  canons,  and  to  represent  the  windings  of  a  stream.  (See  Ele- 
mentary Geography,  State  Series,  pages  10,  11,  14.)  Model  in  damp  sand 
the  same  features.  Make  cross-sections  of  the  models  by  cutting  through 
them  at  any  point  and  pushing  away  one  portion.  Sketch  the  outlines  of 
the  sections  thus  formed.  (See  Frye's  "Child  and  Nature,"  page  12,  Figs. 
I,  2.)  In  all  of  this  local  study  the  pupil  sees  the  real  thing  and  then  rep- 
resents his  conception  of  what  he  has  seen.  As  soon  as  he  begins  to  study 
any  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  bej-ond  the  limits  of  his  observation  he 
sees  representations  such  as  pictures,  drawings,  maps,  and  models;  and  from 
these  imagines,  or  forms  mental  pictures  of,  the  real  things  by  comparing 
these  representations  with  the  objects  familiar  to  him.  A  few  elementary 
facts  concerning  relative  position  and  relative  height  of  mountains,  and  the 
position  of  river-basins  with  reference  to  these  mountains,  will  serve  as  a 
basis  for  a  clear  conception  of  the  topography  of  any  continent  or  country. 
(See  Chapter  X,  in  "  Child  and  Nature,"  by  Frye.) 

From  his  observation  of  local  geography,  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  see 
that  mountains  give  shape  and  character  to  the  land  about  him.  Now  let 
him  observe  good  sand  maps  of  the  continents,  made  by  the  teacher.  Let 
the  teacher  cut  through  the  axis  of  each  great  mountain-system,  at  the  same 


time  marking  the  outline  with  the  crayon,  as  this  is  done^  on  the  board  below. 
Brush  away  the  sand  and  compare  the  outline  thus  made  with  outline  maps 
of  the  continents,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mountain-axes  are  mostly 
parallel  to  the  coast-lines  of  the  continents,  and  that  all  that  is  necessary  to 
make  them  alike  is  a  little  enlarging  and  filling  in.  The  pupil  should  thus 
be  led  to  see  that  the  first  and  most  important  things  to  learn  when  study- 
ing the  physical  features  of  any  part  of  the  earth  are  the  relative  position  of 
the  chief  mountain-axes  and  the  relative  height  of  the  systems  that  these 
axes  represent. 

For  example,  in  studying  the  continent  of  North  America,  have  pupils 
first  trace  on  a  map  the  axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  System  from  its  north- 
ern extremity  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Next  sketch  this  axis  on  paper, 
then  model  the  system  in  sand.  Do  the  same  with  the  coast  system,  begin- 
ning with  Alaska  Peninsula  and  ending  with  Lower  California.  After  this 
has  been  done,  sketch  and  model  the  two  systems  in  their  relative  position. 
Do  the  same  with  the  Appalachian  System  and  the  Laurentian  Hills.  When 
all  are  arranged  in  their  proper  places,  complete  the  intervening  and  coast 
slopes.     The  result  is  the  relief  map  of  North  America. 

As  soon  as  the  relative  position  of  the  main  mountain-axes  is  fixed  so  that 
these  axes  can  be  sketched  or  modeled  readily,  have  pupils  sketch  around 
them  so  as  to  form  the  outline  of  the  continent.  Have  pupils  observe,  as 
they  complete  the  slopes  between  the  mountains,  where  the  great  river- 
systems  of  the  continent  are;  then  let  them  sketch,  first  the  mountain-axes, 
next  the  outline  of  the  continent,  and  then  the  river-systems.  Pupils 
should  practice  upon  this  work  until  it  can  be  done  both  accurately  and 
rapidly. 

Other  continents  and  countries  should  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 


PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Ac  a  pvjl'co. 

An'gles. 

a  tail'. 

Bar  ba'doe$. 

Bo  Ian'. 

Gai'ro. 

Chey(shi)enne'(en) 

Af  gAan  is  tan'. 

An  tilles'(teelz). 

A'von. 

ba  rOm'e  ter. 

Bor  deaux'(do). 

eai'ais. 

Chi'co. 

A  gvil'has(yas). 

Sn  tip'o  dal. 

A  zores'. 

Baton  Rouge  (bat'n 

Bor'ne  0. 

Can  t5n'. 

Gol  0  ra'do. 

A  la  me'da. 

A'pl  a. 

roozh). 

BSs'po  rus. 

Cape  Bre  ton(brit' 

Cor  ri  6n'te§. 

Al  ber'U. 

Ap  pa  la'chi  an. 

Bab  el  man'deb. 

B6d'ou  in. 

Brah  ma  poo'tra. 

un). 

eSs'U  Rica. 

A  l^'tian(shl  an). 

Ar  a  fu'ra. 

Ba  ha'mas. 

Bgl  00  chis  tan'. 

Br2m'en. 

ear  ib  be'an. 

ai'ka  H. 

A  ran  ca'ri  an. 

Bai'kal. 

Ben  gal'. 

Bu  cha  r6st'. 

Cas  tile'. 

Da  ho'mgy. 

ai'ka  linif. 

Ar'gen  tine. 

B51  e  Sr'ic. 

Ben  NeVis. 

Bii'da  Pest^. 

Cat'te  gat. 

Da'nish. 

Al'pin^. 

Ar  kSn'sas. 

Ba  lize'. 

Bo  de'ga. 

Bnd'dhism(izm). 

Cau'ca  sus. 

Dar  da  nelles'(nelz) 

Al'tai. 

Am'hem. 

Bal  kan'. 

Bo'er. 

Buenos  Ayres(bo'nos 

Ga  yii'ga. 

Dar  fur'. 

A  moor'. 

ar  roy'o§. 

Bal  kash'. 

Bo  go  ta'. 

a'riz). 

gel'e  bej. 

D?l  a  go'a. 

An  a  ba  ra'. 

As  tra  k^an'. 

Bang  we  o'lo. 

Boi'je. 

Bnl  fa'ri  a. 

5e  vennes'(ven). 

Del  N6r'te. 

A  na'dyr. 

A  ta  ca'ma. 

Ba'o  bab. 

Bojad5r'. 

Bur'gun  dy. 

chap  ar  rSl'. 

de  tri'tus. 

1.  Mak*  ttaoM  talilei  carafnlly;  not  more  than  one  or  two  s  day. 


INDEX. 

, 

1 

di'a  tfims. 

Green  wich(grin'ij ) . 

La  Pla'ta. 

Mont  re  al'. 

P6  po  eSt  a  petl'. 

Se  quoi'a. 

Timor'. 

Dnie'(iie)per. 

Guar  da  fui'(fwee). 

LSs'sen. 

Mo'sul. 

Poughkeepsie(po- 

Sgv'ille. 

Tit  i  ca'ca. 

Dnies'(nees)ter. 

Gua(gaw)te  ma'la. 

la'va. 

kip'si). 

Shah. 

Tlax  ca'la. 

Dwi'na. 

Guay'(gwi)mas. 

11  a'na. 

Ne  gri'tog. 

Pijn'ta  A  re'nas. 

Shang  hai'. 

To  bOlsk'. 

G»i  a'na. 

H'cheng. 

Ngr  bfid'da. 

Pyr'en  eeg. 

Si  er'ra  Mad'rg. 

Tok'yo. 

E'bro. 

G«in'ea(e). 

Lni  k/i}'. 

Ne'va. 

Si  er'ra  Ne  va'da. 

TQr'res. 

Edinburgh  (Sd'in- 

Loire(lwar). 

New'found  land. 

Qui'(ke)to. 

Si  hon'. 

Trans  vaal'. 

burrah). 

Hav'r^. 

LCm'bar  dy. 

New  Or'le  ang. 

Sin'ga  pore. 

TriSst,?'. 

«'der. 

Ha  wai'i. 

Los  An  ge  lej. 

N  ga'mi. 

Rel  ki  gi  vik. 

SkSg'er-Rack. 

Trlp'o  U. 

Ekaterinburg(a  ka- 

Hgb'ri  deg. 

Lo'pez. 

Nov  go  r6d'. 

Ri  ga. 

Sken  e  5t'e  les. 

Tucs6n'. 

tareen  boorg'). 

Hel  e'na. 

Ny(ne)as'sa. 

Ri'o  Grande. 

So  ko  to'. 

Tu  lar'e. 

Elb^. 

Him  a'la  ya. 

Ma  cao'(kow). 

Ri'o  Ja  ne/'ro. 

So  la'no. 

Tur  kes  tiin'. 

Bl  bi}rz'. 

Hin  doo  stan'. 

Ma  de/'ra. 

Oahu(wa'hoo). 

Ri'o  Ne'gro. 

So  phi'a. 

Tyr'ol. 

eu  ea  lyp'tus. 

Ho  ang  ho'. 

Magyar(m6d'jor). 

O'bi. 

Ro  mSn'zof. 

Squ  dan'. 

JTv.  phra'tes. 

Ma  lae'ca. 

O  ce(she)a'ni  a. 

Rqu  ma'ni  ans. 

Spo  kSn'^. 

Uruguay  (ooroo- 

6$  u'ber  ant. 

i  ba'dan. 

Mai'a  ga. 

O'der. 

Rqu  me'li  a. 

squ^l'id. 

gwi'). 

I  ra'ni  an. 

Ma  lay'. 

O  dSs'sa. 

Russian(rush'an). 

Sta  no  voi'. ' 

Fah'ren  h«t. 

Ir  kytsk'. 

Man  chjj'ri  a. 

Ok  hotsk'. 

Sulej'man'. 

Val  dai'. 

Fa'roe. 

Ir  ra  w^d'dy. 

Man  i  to'ba. 

Ok  la  ho'ma. 

Sa  g;4a  lin'. 

Sii  ma'tra. 

Val  pa  rai'go. 

f?t'i  shism. 

i  so  therm'al. 

MSn  za  ni'ta. 

O  nn'da. 

St.  Au'gus  tine. 

Vera  Cruz(va'ra- 

Fgz  zan'. 

Ma  o'ri§. 

On  ta'ri  o. 

Saint  Goth'ard. 

Ta  breez'. 

kroos). 

Fin  is  tSrre'. 

Ke  ni'a. 

Mar  a  eay'bo. 

O  rang'  qu  tang. 

St.  Hel  e'na. 

Ta  hi'ti. 

Via  div  o  st6k'. 

fiord. 

K/tir  turn'. 

Ma  rin'. 

O  ri  za'ba. 

Sa  li'nas. 

Ta  ho«'. 

Fol'(fiil)som. 

KJta  tan'ga. 

Marseilles'(salz). 

O  trSn'to. 

Sa  mar  cSnd'. 

Tam  al  pais'(pice). 

Will  am'ette. 

for  a  min'i  fers. 

K/;e  dive'. 

Martinique'{eek). 

Ox'us. 

San  Be(ba)ni'to. 

Tan  gan  yi'ka. 

Wy  o'ming. 

Fra'ger. 

KMng  Gan'. 

Mau'(mow)na  Lo'a. 

San  Di  e'go. 

Tash  kend'. 

Ki  ak/i'ta. 

Me  kong'. 

Pa'lo  Al'to. 

San  Joaquin  (wah- 

Te  ha'ma. 

Yab  lo  noi'. 

G51  a  pa'gos. 

Ki  Sv'. 

Mgl  a  ne'si  a. 

Pa  meer'. 

keen'). 

Te  huan'(wan)te- 

Ya  kijtsk'. 

Gai'vSston. 

Ki  lau(low)e'a. 

Men  do  fl'no. 

Pan  a  ma'. 

San  Ma  te'o. 

pec. 

Yang  tse  ki  ang'. 

Ga  ronne'. 

Kilima  Njaro(kine- 

Milt  sin'. 

Pap'u  a. 

San  Quen'tin. 

Te  he  ran'. 

Yen  e  se'i. 

Gib  ral'tar. 

manjaro'). 

Mo  ha've. 

Par  a  guay'. 

San'ta  Cruz(kroos). 

T6n'e  riffe. 

Yo  ko  ha'ma. 

Gi'(he)la. 

Kirg>4eez'. 

Mo  kSl'um  ne. 

Pa  tras'. 

San'ta  Fe. 

Ter'ra  del  Fue' 

Ydr'u  ba. 

Gi'zeh. 

Kla'm4t/4. 

mSl'e  cules. 

Pgtch'o  ra. 

Sar  a  wak'. 

(fwa)go. 

Yo  sgm'i  te. 

GAaats. 

Ko  ly(le)ina'. 

Mont  Blanc  (mong 

Pi'nos. 

Sc\i  ta'ri. 

Thames(temz). 

Go  dav'e  ry. 

Koo'ril. 

bl6ng'). 

Point  Gallinas(g51- 

Se  at'tle. 

Thi(te)an'  Shan. 

Zam  be'gi. 

gor'ges. 

Krish'na. 

Mon  te  Di  ab'lo. 

ye'nas). 

S£b  as  to'pol. 

TIb'et. 

Zan'te. 

Gra'fi  as  a  Di'os. 

Kuen  (kwSn)liin'. 

Mon  te  vid'e  o. 

P6m  pe'ii(ye). 

Seme. 

Tim  bfik'm. 

Zan  zi  bar'. 

143 


INDEX. 


[References  are  made  to  sections.    The  letter  "n"  in  parenthesis,  (n),  refers  to  note  under  the  section.] 


Abyssinia,  813. 

Acapulco,  593. 

Adirondack  Mountains,  351. 

Afghanistan,  778. 

Africa,  68. 

Africa,  Physical  —  Shape,  surface, 
area,  786;  highlands,  787-789;  low- 
lands, 790-791;  drainage,  792-794; 
climate  and  vegetation,  795-800; 
productions,  801-803. 

Africa,  Political — Political  condi- 
tion, 804;  people,  805-806;  foreign 
occupation,  807-809;  countries, 
810-821. 

Africans  in  North  America,  301. 

Agriculture,  237;  in  North  America, 
304;  in  the  United  States,  329,  374; 
in  New  Jersey,  353;  in  Ohio,  384; 
in  Illinois,  386;  in  Michigan,  387; 
in  Iowa,  390;  in  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, 391;  in  the  Dakotas,  392, 
393;  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
410;  in  Southern  States,  425;  in 
Utah,  465;  in  Pacific  States,  482; 
in  Washington,  484,  488;  in  Nova 
Scotia,  569;  in  Ontario,  573;  in 
South  America,  632;  in  Paraguay, 
644;  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  744; 
in  Roumania  and  Servia,  754;  in 
Turkey,  758;  in  Tibet  and  Turkes- 
tan, 767;  in  Abyssinia,  813;  in 
Australia,  829.  [See  also,  under 
this  head,  "Agricultural  Prod- 
ucts."] 

Agricultural  implements,  330,  384, 
385.  552,  555- 


Agricultural  products,  of  Northeast- 
ern States,  339;  of  New  York,  351; 
of  New  Jersey,  353;  of  Delaware, 
354;  of  Maryland,  355;  of  West 
Virginia,  382;  of  Indiana,  385;  of 
Illinois,  386;  of  Michigan,  387; 
of  Wisconsin,  388;  of  Minnesota, 
389;  of  Iowa,  390;  of  North  Dakota, 
392;  of  Middle  Belt  States,  407;  of 
Virginia,  409;  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  410;  of  Missouri,  411;  of 
Indian  Territory,  412;  of  Southern 
States,  425,  426;  of  North  Carolina, 
430;  of  South  Carolina,  431;  of 
Georgia,  432;  of  Florida,  433;  of 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louis- 
iana, 434,  435,  436;  of  Arkansas, 
437;  of  Texas,  438;  of  Utah,  465; 
of  Pacific  Coast  States,  482;  of 
Washington,  484;  of  Oregon,  485; 
of  California,  521,  523,  526,  526(n), 
527,  528,  529,  533,  534,  535,  553, 
556;  of  Canada,  560,  562,  569,  571, 
574,  575;  of  Mexico,  587,  588;  of 
Central  America,  596;  of  West 
Indies,  602;  of  South  America, 
630;  of  Brazil,  636;  of  Venezuela, 
637;  of  Colombia,  638;  of  Ecuador, 
639;  of  Peru,  640;  of  Chile,  642;  of 
Argentine,  643;  of  Paraguay,  644; 
of  Guiana,  646;  of  Russia,  679,  680; 
of  Arabia,  695;  of  Sweden,  703;  of 
Denmark,  705;  of  Ireland,  714;  of 
Germany,  718;  of  Austria,  730;  of 
France,  733;  of  Italy,  739;  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  744;  of  Greece,  750; 


of  Bulgaria  and  eastern  Roumelia, 
756;  of  China,  763;  of  India,  771; 
of  Ceylon,  772;  of  Indo-China,  777; 
of  Japan,  781;  of  Africa,  801;  of 
Egypt,  810;  of  Barbary  States,  812; 
of  Abyssinia,  813;  of  coast  regions 
of  Central  Africa,  8l6;  of  Mada- 
gascar, 820;  of  Oceania,  826;  of 
Australia,  829(n);  of  Tasmania, 
830;  of  Malaysia,  839;  of  Hawaiian 
Islands,  845;  of  Samoan  Islands, 
846;  of  F'eejee  Islands,  847;  of 
Tahiti,  848. 
Air,  effect  on  rocks,  37;  pressure  of, 
131,  I3i(n);  currents  of,  135,  136, 

139- 
Alabama,  419,  434,  446. 
Alabaster,  734. 
Alameda  City,  548,  550. 
Alameda  County,  534. 
Alaska,  262,  280,  479,  479(n). 
Alcohol,  733. 
Aleutian  Islands,  70,  76. 
Alexandria,  810. 
Alfalfa,  530. 
Algeria,  812. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  62. 
Alleghany  River,  370. 
Allegheny  City,  370. 
Alligators,  176. 
Allspice,  605. 
Almonds,  739. 
Alpaca,  631. 
Alpaca  wool,  640,  641. 
Alpine  County,  537. 
Alps,  725. 


Altai  Mountains,  679. 

Amazon  River,  617,  625. 

America.  [See  "North  America" 
and  "South  America."] 

American  race,  204,  210. 

Amsterdam,  722. 

Andes  Mountains,  52,  69,  610,  611, 
612,  624. 

Angles,  710. 

Animals,  of  oceanic  islands,  73  (n); 
now  live,  164;  number  and  char- 
acter depends,  176;  of  the  tropics, 
176;  of  the  Temperate  Zones,  177; 
of  the  arctic  regions,  178;  land 
animals,  distribution  of,  179; 
oceanic  animals,  distribution  of, 
181-184;  form  limestone,  187;  form 
marble,  187;  form  chalk,  187;  of 
North  America,  290;  of  Iceland, 
313;  of  South  America,  629;  of 
Eurasia,  671;  of  Africa,  802;  of 
Oceania,  827;  of  Australia,  829;  of 
Malaysia,  837. 

Animal  products,  332,  347,  351,  359, 
378,  384,  386,  390.  400,  415.  468,  486, 
524,  525,  533.  535,  549.  589,  632,  638, 
643,  645,  680,  705,  712,  744,  758, 
770{n),  777,  812,  813,  829,  831. 

Annapolis,  373. 

Ann  Arbor,  403. 

Antelope,  802,  814. 

Antimony,  519,  530. 

Antipodal  point,  10,  io(n). 

Anti-trade-winds,  140, 153,  286, 626-7. 

Antwerp,  724. 

Apes,  837. 


144 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


Apia,  846. 

Appalachian  Mountains,  52,  62,  260, 
266,  282,  316,  321,  342,  352. 

Apples,  485,  560,  569,  763,  830. 

Apricots,  535. 

Arabia,  666,  668,  669,  695,  696,  757. 

Arabs,  805,  807,  809,  812,  813,  819. 

Aral  Sea,  635. 

Arctic  Archipelago,  281,  281  (n). 

Arctic  coast,  26i(n). 

Arctic  Ocean,  266,  278,  279,  28i(n). 

Arctic  Plain,  279. 

Area,  of  Norti  America,  254;  of 
United  States,  314;  of  North 
Central  States,  374;  of  Middle 
Belt  States,  406;  of  Southern 
States,  419;  of  Plateau  States,  448; 
of  Pacific  Coast  States,  479;  of 
California  Basin,  491;  of  Nova 
Scotia,  569;  of  New  Brunswick, 
570;  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  571; 
of  Quebec,  572;  of  Ontario,  573; 
of  British  Columbia,  577;  of  New 
Foundland,  578;  of  Mexico,  590; 
of  Amazon  Valley,  617;  of  South 
America,  634;  of  Brazil,  636;  of 
Venezuela,  637;  of  Ecuador,  639; 
of  Chile,  642;  of  Argentine,  643;  of 
Paraguay,  644;  of  Uruguay,  645; 
of  Terra  del  Fuego  anfl  Falkland, 
647;  of  the  Russian  Empire,  674; 
of  Arabia,  695;  of  Europe,  698;  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  702;  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  708;  of  Ire- 
land, 714;  of  London,  715;  of  the 
German  Empire,  716;  of  Holland, 
720;  of  dependencies  of  Holland, 
721;  of  Belgium,  723;  of  Austro- 
Hungary,  729;  of  France,  732;  of 
Italy,  738;  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
741;  of  Greece,  748;  ofRoumania, 
etc.,  754;  of  Turkish  Empire,  757; 
of  Chinese  Empire,  760;  of  India 
and  Indo-China,  768;  of  Japan,  779; 
of  Africa,  786;  of  Australia,  829; 
of  Java,  840. 

Argentine  Republic,  643. 

Arizona,  328,  448,  467,  477. 

Arkansas,  419,  437,  447. 

Arkansas  River,  274. 

Arrow-root,  820,  846. 

Arroyos,  66. 

Artesian  wells,  502,  529,  530. 

Artificial  flowers,  734. 

Artists,  740. 

Ascension  Island,  821. 

Ash,  408,  5i5(n). 

Ashanti,  816. 

Asia  Minor,  452(n),  759. 

Asiatics  in  North  America,  300,  302. 

Asphaltum,  519,  530,  535. 

Assiniboia,  563,  575. 

Astoria,  489. 

Astrakhan,  683. 

Athabasca,  575. 

Athens,  753. 

Atlanta,  440. 

Atlantic  coast,  26i(n),  282(n). 

Atlantic  Highland,  260. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  278. 

Atlantic  Plain,  264,  279,  315,  316,  374. 

Atlantic  Slope,  270,  282(n). 

Atlas  Mountains,  795. 

Attar-of-roses,  758. 

Auckland,  831. 

Australasia,  829-833.  (For  individ- 
ual islands  and  groups  of  islands, 
see  their  names.) 

Australia,  71,  829. 

Austro-Hungary,  extent  and  surface, 
729;  productions,  730;  cities,  731. 

Axis,  continental,  69. 

Axis,  Primary — Def.,  69;  of  North 
America,  255;  of  South  America, 
610;  of  Eurasia,  649,  659;  of  Africa, 
787. 

Axis,  Secondary — Def.,  69;  of  North 
America,  260;  of  South  America, 
613;  of  Eurasia,  655. 

Azof,  Sea  of,  699. 

Azores,  821. 

Bahamas,  282,  607. 
Bahr  el  Ghazal,  794. 


Baikal  Lake,  666. 

Balkash  Lake,  664. 

Baltimore,  334,  361. 

Bamboo,  763. 

Bananas,  596,  763,  826,  848. 

Bangor,  363. 

Baobab,  801. 

Barbadoes,  608. 

Barbarians,  192. 

Barbary  States,  812. 

Barka,  757. 

Barley,  410,  412,  484,  535,  763. 

Barometer,  132. 

Barometric  pressure,  133. 

Basins,  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  49,  63, 
272,319;  of  Lake  Superior,  loi;  of 
Great  Salt  Lake,  loi;  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie River,  267;  of  Hudson  Bay, 
267;  of  the  Mississippi  River,  268, 
316,  317,  318;  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,  269,  317;  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin,  490-493;  of  the 
Klamath  River,  494;  of  the  Tigris 
River,  759;  of  the  Euphrates,  759. 

Bass-wood,  5i5(n). 

Batavia,  840. 

Bath,  363. 

Bats,  629. 

Bays,  74,  76,  109;  Baffin  Bay,  281; 
Hudson  Bay,  28i(n);  of  Eurasia, 
649;  of  Europe,  697. 

Beans,  535,  587,  630,  801. 

Bears,  177,  677. 

Beaver,  178,  179. 

Bedouins,  696. 

Beech,  5i5(n). 

Beef,  378,  386,  415,  524,  632,  643, 
67o(n). 

Beer,  414,  552,  553. 

Bees,  177. 

Beets,  733. 

Belfast,  715. 

Belgians,  723. 

Belgium,  people  and  products,  723; 
cities,  724;  authority  of,  817. 

Belgrade,  756. 

Beloochistan,  778. 

Berbers,  812. 

Bering  Sea,  281  (n). 

Bering  Strait,  254(n). 

Berkeley,  550. 

Berlin,  719. 

Berries,  339,  353,  521. 

Birch,  170. 

Birds,  629,  837. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  446. 

Birmingham,  Eng.,  715. 

Bismuth,  839. 

Bison,  564. 

Black  type  (race),  205,  214,  215,  216, 
806,  828,  832,  843. 

Blanca  Peak,  274. 

Blue  Ridge,  62. 

Boa-constrictor,  176,  629. 

Bogota,  638. 

Bohemia,  729. 

Boise  City,  472. 

Bolan  Pass,  778. 

Bolivia,  641. 

Bone  phosphate,  431. 

Bonneville  Lake,  277. 

Book-binding,  359. 

Boots  and  Shoes,  330,  359,  366,  378, 
384. 

Borax,  454,  464,  519,  536,  739. 

Bordeaux,  737. 

Borneo,  71,  834,  837,  839,  842. 

Boston,  28i(n),  334,  359. 

Boxes,  549. 

Brahmapootra,  771. 

Brahminism,  230,  231. 

Brandy,  526,  737. 

Brass,  368. 

Brazil,  633,  635,  636. 

Brazilian  Current,  157. 

Brazilian  Plateau,  613. 

Bread-fruit,  826. 

Brick,  361,  397,  414. 

British  Columbia,  561,  577. 

British  Isles,  158,  655;  importance, 
707;  physical  features,  708;  cli- 
mate, 709;  people,  710;  govern- 
ment, 711;  England,  712;  Scot- 
land, 713;  Ireland,  714;  cities,  715. 


Brooklyn,  357. 

Broom-corn,  351. 

Brown,  Mount,  274. 

Brunswick,  444. 

Brussels,  724. 

Bucharest,  755. 

Buda-Pesth,  731. 

Buddhism,  230,  232. 

Buenos  Ayres,  643. 

Buffalo,  362. 

Buffaloes,  758,  767,  77o(n),  802,  814. 

Building-stones,  739. 

Bulgaria,  754,  756. 

Burgundy,  733. 

Burlington,  365. 

Butte  City,  473. 

Butter,  347,  351,  390,  535,  705. 

Cabinet-woods,  630. 

Cacao,  587. 

Cairo,  810. 

Calais,  Me.,  363. 

Calcutta,  775. 

California,  448;  Central  Basin,  490- 
493i  505;  west  slope  drainage,  494, 
495;  interior  drainage,  496,  497; 
rivers  of,  498-501;  artesian  wells, 
502;  volcanoes,  503;  climate,  504- 
511;  scenery,  512,  513;  forest  trees, 
514,  515;  mineral  resources,  516- 
519;  natural  vegetation,  520-522; 
agricultural  resources,  523-526; 
counties,  527-537;  islands,  538; 
educational  institutions,  539-542; 
charitable  institutions,  543-547; 
cities,  548-556. 

California,  Gulf  of,  76,  109,  265, 
265(n). 

Camels,  671,  767,  802,  808,  810. 

Camel's  hair  goods,  678. 

Cameroons  Mountains,  795. 

Camphor,  781,  839. 

Canada,  557;  surface,  558;  climate, 
559-562;  vegetation,  563;  animals, 
564;  water-ways,  565;  railways, 
566;  government,  567,  568;  prov- 
inces, 567-577;  cities,  579. 

Canary  Islands,  821. 

Cannibalism,  806,  828. 

Canned  goods,  550. 

Canon,  66. 

Canton,  766. 

Cape  Colony,  818. 

Capes,  how  formed,  76;  of  Alaska, 
280;  of  Atlantic  coast,  282. 

Caravan,  681,  683,  758,  759,  812. 

Car-building,  372. 

Caribou,  578. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  729. 

Carpets,  360,  678,  692,  715,  810. 

Carribean  Sea,  28i(n). 

Cascade  Mountains,  255(n),  259,  265, 
271. 

Caspian  Sea,  10 1,  664. 

Castile,  744. 

Cats,  179. 

Cattle,  347,  378,  386,  410,  414,  438, 
453.  464,  467,  468,  484,  485,  520, 
524.  525.  530.  589,  636,  637,  705, 
712,  767,  802,  814. 

Caucasus  Mountains,  698. 

Cave  men,  199. 

Cedar,  169,  408,  424,  433,  484,  514. 

Celebes,  834,  839,  841. 

Celts,  710. 

Central  America,  temperature,  284; 
moisture,  286;  physical  features, 
594;  climate,  595;  resources,  596; 
people,  597;  government,  598. 

Central  Basin  of  California,  490-493. 

Ceylon,  772. 

Chad  Lake,  794. 

Chalk,  187. 

Champagne,  733. 

Champlain  Lake,  347. 

Change  of  seasons,  120. 

Channel  Islands,  538. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  443. 

Charleston,  W.  Va.,  401. 

Cheese,  347,  351,  390,  535,  705,  712. 

Cherries,  534. 

Cliesapeake  Bay,  109,  355. 

Chestnuts,  739,  744. 

Chestnut  tree,  408,  744. 


Chicago,  394. 

Chile,  626,  642. 

Chimpanzee,  802. 

China  Sea,  109. 

Chinaware,  734. 

Chinese,  213,  845. 

Chinese  Empire,  area,  760;  China 
proper,  761;  physical  features,  762; 
products,  763;  exports,  764;  educa- 
tion, 765;  cities,  766;  provinces,  767. 

Chocolate,  587,  630. 

Christiania,  706. 

Christianity,  230,  234,  303,  336. 

Chromium,  535. 

Cincinnati,  395. 

Cinnamon,  772. 

Citron,  750. 

Clams,  182. 

Claret,  733. 

Cleveland,  403. 

Climate,  17;  oceanic,  115;  continen- 
tal, 116;  within  the  Arctic  Circle  of 
North  America,  283;  of  Mexico, 
284,  584,  585;  of  Central  America, 
284,  595;  in  the  Temperate  Zone  of 
North  America,  285;  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  286;  in  the  Basin 
of  Utah  and  Nevada,  286;  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America, 
287;  of  Iceland,  313;  of  the  North- 
eastern States,  340;  of  the  North 
Central  States,  377;  of  Dakota, 
392,  393;  of  Missouri,  411;  of  the 
Southern  States,  423;  of  Florida, 
433;  of  the  Plateau  States,  452, 
460;  of  Colorado,  466;  of  Arizona, 
467;  of  Pacific  Coast  States,  481; 
of  CaHfornia,  504-511;  of  San 
Diego,  554;  of  Canada,  559;  of 
southeastern  provinces  of  Canada, 
559;  of  British  Columbia,  561;  of 
the  interior  of  Canada,  562;  of  the 
West  Indies,  601;  of  South  Amer- 
ica, 623-628;  of  Ecuador,  639;  of 
Paraguay,  644;  of  Falkland  Isl- 
ands, 647;  of  Eurasia,  667-669;  of 
St.  Petersburg,  687;  of  Europe, 
699;  of  British  Isles,  709;  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  742;  of  Japan,  780;  of 
Africa,  795-800;  of  Abyssinia,  813; 
of  Oceania,  825;  of  Australia,  829; 
of  New  Zealand,  831;  of  Malaysia, 
836;  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  845. 
[For  further  reference,  see  "Rain- 
fall "  and  "Temperature."] 

Clocks,  349. 

Cloth,  222,  223,  378. 

Clothing,  225,  330,  359,  371,  378,  384. 

Clouds,  148. 

Coal,  186,  342,  352,  360,  370,  378,  382, 
384,  384(n),  386,  402,  405,  407,  425, 
432,  434,  437,  454.  463.  466.  484. 
487.  519.  569,  570,  576.  577.  633. 
678,  680,  707,  715,  718,  723,  730, 
734,  763,  771- 

Coast-lines,  74,  75;  of  North  Amer- 
ica, 280-282;  of  Maine,  345;  of 
South  America,  621,  622;  of  Eura- 
sia, 648;  of  Europe,  697;  of  Nor- 
way, 702;  of  Denmark,  705;  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  708;  of 
Greece,  748;  of  Hindoostan,  770; 
of  Africa,  791. 

Coast  Range,  51,  62,  255(n),  258,  279. 

Cockatoos,  177. 

Cocoanut  oil,  772,  846. 

Cocoanuts,  826,  839,  845,  848. 

Codfish,  184. 

Coffee,  332,  587,  596,  630,  636,  637, 
638,  639,  646,  695,  772,  801,  813, 
816,  826,  839. 

Cold,  effect  on  rock,  37. 

Colleges,  344,  381,  403,  540,  542. 

Colombia,  638. 

Colorado,  448,  466,  469,  476. 

Colorado  Desert,  497. 

Colorado  River,  272,  274,  319;  Canon 
of,  467(n)- 

Columbia  River,  272,  274,  319,  485. 

Commerce,  growth  of,  240;  money, 
241;  transportation,  242;  of  North 
America,  310;  in  the  United  States, 
333,  334;  '"  tli^  Northeastern 
States,  343;   of  Vermpnt,  347;  of 


INDEX. 


145 


Massachusetts,  348;  of  Connecti- 
cut, 349;  of  New  York,  351;  of 
New  York  City,  356;  of  Baltimore, 
361;  of  Portland,  Me.,  363;  of  the 
North  Central  States,  379;  of  Chi- 
cago, 394;  of  Cleveland  and  Cin- 
cinnati, 395;  of  Detroit,  396;  of 
Ann  Arbor,  403;  of  Duluth,  405; 
of  St.  Louis,  414;  of  Memphis, 
417;  of  St.  Joseph,  418;  of  New 
Orleans,  439;  of  Galveston,  441; 
of  Colorado,  466;  of  Denver,  469; 
of  Salt  Lake  City,  470;  of  Phoenix, 
477;  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
484;  of  Oregon,  485;  effect  upon 
agriculture,  524;  of  Los  Angeles, 
551;  of  Sacramento,  552;  of  Can- 
ada, 565;  of  Quebec,  572;  of  Que- 
bec City,  579;  of  Havana,  604;  of 
Chile,  642;  of  Argentine  Republic, 
643;  in  Russian  Empire,  681-683; 
of  St.  Petersburg,  687;  of  Ger- 
many, 717;  of  Hamburg,  719;  of 
Holland,  721;  of  Antwerp,  724;  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  744;  of  Lis- 
bon, 747;  of  Constantinople,  758; 
through  Afghanistan,  778;  in  Af- 
rica, 807,  808;  in  Egypt,  810;  of 
Sahara,  815;  of  Congo,  817;  of 
Honolulu,  845.  [See  also,  "Ex- 
ports" and  "Imports."] 
Comparative  area,  254,  314,  345,  569, 
570,  572,  573,  577.  578,  590,  634, 
636,  637,  639,  643,  644,  645,  647, 
674,  695,  698,  702,  708,  714,  716, 
720,  729,  732,  738,  748,  760,  761, 
768,  779,  786,  829,  840,  842."^See 
also,  tables,  pp.  58,  62,  64,  65,  71, 

74-] 
Comparative  climate,  393,  460,  4»i, 

559.  561.  595.  667,  699. 

Comparative  population,  394,  414, 
432,  556.  572,  579,  592,  634,  636, 
694,  702,  716,  719,  720,  722,  732, 
737.  738.  747,  751,  756,  759,  76', 
768,  829,  840.  [See  also,  tables, 
pp.  58,  62,  64,  6s,  71,  74.] 

Comparative  temperature,  504,  561, 
668,  677,  699,  709. 

Condor,  629. 

Cone-bearers,  169,  514. 

Congo  Free  State,  817. 

Connecticut,  338,  341,  349,  368. 

Connecticut  River,  349. 

Constantinople,  758. 

Continents,  67;  differ  from  islands, 
how,  67;  names  of,  68. 

Contra  Costa  County,  534. 

Cooking,  224. 

Copenhagen,  706. 

Copper,  387,  396,  454,  462,  519,  573, 
642,  712,  803,  812,  839. 

Coral,  187,  824,  824(n),  833. 

Corea,  767. 

Coreans,  213. 

Corfu,  753. 

Com,  355,  386,   390,  407,   410,  411, 

412,   425,   434,  437,  438,  533,  587, 
630. 
Cotton,  331,   411,   414,   425,  426,  431, 

432,  434,  435,  436,  437,  438.  439. 
441,  442,  443,'  446,  588,   630,  646, 
712,  763,   771,   777,  781,  801,  826, 
845,  846,  847. 
Cotton  goods,  348,  350,  364,  366,  371, 

715- 
Cotton  mills,  350. 
Crockery,  371. 
Crocodiles,  176,  802,  837. 
Cuba,  282,  6co,  604. 
Currents.    [See     "Ocean-Currents" 

and  "Air-Currents."] 
Cutlery,  349,  715. 
Cyclones,  145,  146,  I46(n),  509,  510, 

601. 
Cypress,  408,  424,  515. 

Dahomey,  8i6. 

Dairying,  384,  388,  533,  534,  535,  572, 

726. 
Damascus,  759. 
Danube  River,  729. 
Darfur,  811. 
Darling  River,  829. 


Dates,  695,  801,  812. 

Day  and  night,  120. 

Dead  Sea,  666. 

Death  Valley,  497. 

Deciduous  trees,  169. 

Deer,  177,  179,  564. 

Delaware,  338,  354,  372. 

Delta,  42,  43,  661-2.     [See  "  River."] 

Denmark,  705. 

Denver,  469. 

Desert,  65,  531,  648,  691,  798. 

Detritus,  36,  38,  40,  64,  792. 

Detroit,  396. 

Dew,  148,  149. 

Diamonds,  633,  679,  803,  839. 

Distribution  of  heat,  117,  Ii8. 

District  of  Columbia,  326. 

Divide,  79,  256,  260,  261,  616. 

Donkeys,  589,  810. 

Drainage,  basins,  81,  83,  267,  268, 
269,  272,  273,  282,  490-493,  494,  6x6, 
625,  627,  660,  664,  792;  of  Austra- 
lia, 829;  centers,  80,  274;  systems, 
79;  areas,  84,  660,  661,  662,  6(53,  664. 

Drift  men,  198,  201,  20i(n). 

Dublin,  715. 

Duck,  178. 

Duluth,  405. 

Dwellings,  first,  217;  on  piles,  217; 
the  wigwam,  218;  the  snow  house, 
218;  sod  houses,  219;  of  civiliza- 
tion, 219;  in  Mexico,  590;  of  north- 
ern Russia,  677;  of  New  Guinea, 
832. 

Dyaks,  218,  842(n). 

Dye-woods,  588,  630,  839. 

Earthquakes,  cause,  53;  locality,  53; 
in  North  America,  263;  in  South 
America,  612;  in  Eurasia,  654;  in 
Japan,  779;  in  Africa,  789;  in 
Malaysia,  835. 

Ebony,  801,  839. 

Ecuador,  639. 

Edible  bird's  nests,  839. 

Edinburgh,  715. 

Education,  in  the  United  States,  335; 
in  Boston,  359;  in  North  Central 
States,  381 ;  in  the  Plateau  States, 
458;  in  Denver,  469;  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  States,  483;  in  California, 
539-542;  at  Berkeley,  550;  in  Rus- 
sia, 685;  in  Persia,  692;  in  Scandi- 
navia, 701;  in  England,  712;  in 
Edinburgh,  715;  in  Germany,  717; 
in  Berlin,  719;  in  Switzerland,  727; 
in  France,  736;  in  Spain  and  Port- 
ugal, 746;  in  Greece,  751;  in  China, 
765;  in  India,  774;  in  Japan,  784; 
in  Sandwich  Islands,  845. 

Egypt,  810. 

Electric  eels,  629. 

Electricity,  227. 

Elephants,  671,  772(n),  802,  837. 

Elias,  St.,  Mount,  258. 

Elk,  564. 

Elm,  408,  5i5(n). 

Emu,  829. 

England,  699,  712. 

English  people,  208,  323. 

Equatorial  currents.  [See  "Ocean- 
Currents."] 

Ermine,  178. 

Erosion,  36,  40,  51,  58,  61,  66,  291, 
293,  316. 

Eskimos,  houses,  218;  character,  297; 
religion,  302;  of  Labrador,  578. 

Esparto  grass,  812. 

Ethiopians,  813. 

Etna,  Mount,  654. 

Eucalyptus,  829. 

Eurasia,  68(n). 

Eurasia,  Physical  —  Extent,  shape, 
elevations,  648;  highlands,  649-655; 
lowlands,  656-658;  drainage,  659- 
666;  climate,  667-669;  productions, 
670;  animals,  671;  inhabitants,  672. 

Eurasia,  Political  —  General  divis- 
ions, 673.  [For  further  reference 
see  "Russian  Empire,"  "Persia," 
"Europe,"  "Chinese  Empire," 
"Arabia,"  "India,"  and  "Afghan- 
istan. ' '  ] 

Eurasian  axis,  659. 


Eurasian  Plain,  657,  659,  669,  676. 

Europe,  Physical — Outline,  697;  sur- 
face and  area,  698;  climate,  669, 
699;  people,  700. 

Europe,  Political  —  Scandinavian 
countries,  701-706;  British  Isles, 
707-715;  the  German  Empire, 
716-719;  the  Netherlands,  720- 
722;  Belgium,  723,  724;  Switzer- 
land, 725-728;  Austro-Hungary, 
729-731;  France,  732-737;  Italy, 
738-740;  Spain  and  Portugal,  741- 
747;  Greece,  748-753;  Roumania, 
Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Montenegro, 
754-756;  Turkey,  757-759- 

Europeans,  299,  805,  807,  812. 

Evergreens,  168,  169. 

Exports,  of  Greenland,  312;  of  Ice- 
land, 313;  of  the  United  States, 
331;  of  Philadelphia,  360;  of  Bal- 
timore, 361;  of  St.  Louis,  414;  of 
Portland,  Oregon,  486;  of  Seattle 
and  Tacoma,  487;  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, 549;  of  New  Brunswick,  570; 
of  Prince  Edward  Island,  571;  of 
Mexico,  588;  of  Jamaica,  605;  of 
Brazil,  636;  of  Venezuela,  637;  of 
Colombia,  638;  of  Ecuador,  639; 
of  Peru,  640;  of  Bolivia,  641;  of 
Chile,  642;  of  Argentine,  643;  of 
Paraguay,  644;  of  Uruguay,  645;  of 
Turkestan,  678;  of  Russia,  680;  of 
Persia,  692;  of  England,  712;  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  744;  of  Greece, 
750.  753;  of  Turkey,  758;  of  China, 
764;  of  India,  771;  of  Ceylon,  772; 
of  Indo-China,  777;  of  Japan,  782; 
of  Egypt,  810;  of  the  Barbary 
States,  812;  of  African  Coast,  816; 
of  Australia,  829;  of  Tasmania,  830; 
of  New  Zealand,  831;  of  Melanesia, 
832;  of  Micronesia,  833;  of  Malay- 
sia, 839;  of  Java,  840;  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  843;  of  the  Samoan 
Islands,  846;  of  the  Feejee  Islands, 
847;  of  Tahiti,  848. 

Fairs,  682,  682(n). 

Fairweather,  Mount,  258. 

Falkland  Islands,  647. 

Fall  River,  366. 

Fancy  goods,  734. 

Farms,  572(n),  733- 

Faroe  Islands,  705. 

Feejee  Islands,  844,  847. 

Fetichism,  806,  828. 

Fezran,  757,  798. 

Figs,  695,  739,  750,  812. 

Fiords,  88,  93,  281. 

Fir,  484,  514. 

Firearms,  366,  368,  810. 

Fireworks,  764. 

Fish,   184,  564,   570,   578,   631,    712, 

77o(n),  777,  827,  845. 
Fishing  and  fisheries,  237,  309,  348, 

355,  366,  484,  485,  569,  577,  702. 

Flax,  386,  535,  714. 

Florida,  419,  433,  445. 

Flour,  330,  369,  372,  378,  389,  398, 
399,  486,  549,  552,  555- 

Flying  fish,  184. 

Fog,  148,  511. 

Food,  224,  225,  394,  416,  587,  590,  845. 

F'orest  products,  570,  636. 

Forests,  of  the  Amazon,  167,  624; 
of  the  Congo,  167;  islands  of 
southeastern  Asia,  167;  extent  of 
forests,  171;  of  Arkansas,  437;  of 
Washington,  484;  of  California, 
514,  515,  5i5(n),  529,  532,  535;  of 
Canada,  558,  563;  of  Paraguay,  644; 
of  Russia,  679;  of  Norway,  702;  of 
Sweden,  703;  of  Montenegro,  756; 
of  India,  770,  772;  of  Indo-China, 
777;  of  Africa,  796;  of  Austra- 
lia, 829(n);  of  Malaysia,  837. 

Fossils,  45,  47- 

Foxes,  178,  677. 

France,  334;  extent  and  surface,  732; 
agricultural  products,  733;  min- 
erals, 734;  manufactures,  734; 
roads,  735;  education,  736;  relig- 
ion, 736;  cities,  737;  influence  of, 
6li,  815,  816;  possessions  of,  820. 


Frankfort-on-the-Main,  719. 

Fraser  River,  272,  274. 

Fremont  Peak,  274. 

French  people,  208,  323. 

Fresno,  556. 

Fresno  County,  529. 

Frigid  Zones,   123;   winds  of,     142; 

vegetation  of,  170;  animals  of,  178; 

day  and  night  in,  283,  283(n). 
Frost,  149. 
Fruit,  387,  482,  484,  521,  523,  526, 

527,  529,  534,  535,  549,  553,   7i8, 

737,  750.  812,  829(n),  830,  832,  837, 

847,  848. 
Fruit  cans,  549. 
Furniture,  378,  384,  387. 
Furs,  564,  576. 

Galveston,  441. 

Ganges  River,  771. 

Garonne  Valley,  733. 

Gas,  227. 

Geneva,  726. 

Geneva  Lake,  8g(n). 

Georgia,  432,  440,  444. 

German  Empire,  extent  and  popula- 
tion, 716;  importance,  717;  produc- 
tions, 718;  cities,  719;  Government 
influence  in,  816,  832,  846. 

Germans,  208,  700. 

Germany,  foreign  commerce,  334. 

Geysers,  57,  313,  459,  831. 

Gibraltar,  699,  74i(n). 

Gila  River,  272. 

Giraffe,  802. 

Glaciers,  definition,  86;  action  of,  87; 
glacial  valley,  87;  motion  of,  89; 
moraines,  90,  91 ;  glacial  lakes,  87, 
91,  93(n);  present  location,  93;  past 
location,  93;  in  Greenland,  281, 
312;  of  Rocky  Mountains,  558;  of 
Eurasia,  665;  of  Switzerland,  725. 

Glasgow,  715. 

Glass,  370,  414. 

Glassware,  734. 

Glucose,  362. 

Gnu,  802. 

Goats,  744,  758,  767. 

Goat's  hair,  758. 

Gold,  393,  461,  462,  463,  466,  467,  472, 
473,  482,  503(0),  516,  527,  529,  549, 
558,  577,  586,  633,  679,  680,  803, 
810,  816,  829. 

Gorilla,  802. 

Government,  by  chiefs,  244;  mon- 
archy, 248,  249;  limited  monarchy, 
249,  251;  absolute  monarchy,  249, 
250;  legislative  functions,  247; . 
executive  functions,  247;  judicial 
functions,  247;  democracy,  252; 
republic,  definition  and  exam- 
ples, 252;  of  Greenland,  312;  of 
Iceland,  313;  of  United  States, 
325;  of  Canada,  568;  of  Mexico, 
591;  of  Central  America,  598;  of 
Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  604;  of 
Jamaica,  605;  of  Haiti,  606;  of  the 
Bahamas,  607;  of  South  America, 
635;  of  Brazil,  636;  of  Russia,  684; 
of  Persia,  693;  of  Arabia,  696;  of 
Denmark,  705;  of  British  Isles,  711; 
of  Switzerland,  725;  of  Greece,  752; 
of  India,  769;  of  Japan,  783;  of 
Africa,  804;  of  Egypt,  810;  of 
Nubia,  811;  of  Barbary  States,  812; 
of  Abyssinia,  813;  of  Liberia,  816; 
of  Zanzibar,  819;  in  Oceania,  828; 
of  Australia,  829;  of  Tasmania,  830; 
of  New  Zealand,  831;  of  Sandwich 
Islands,  845;  of  Samoa,  846;  of 
Feejee  Islands,  847. 

Gracias  a  Dios,  282. 

Grain,  362,  382,  385,  482,  486,  534, 
535,  643,  705,  718,  733,  756,  810, 
812,  813,  816,  829(n). 

Grand  Rapids,  403. 

Granite,  346,  519. 

Grapes,  526(n),  560,  750. 

Grasses,  171,  407,  451,  453,  520. 

Grazing,  410,  461. 

Great  Britain,  foreign  commerce, 
334;  Government  influence  in, 
769,  810,  811,  816,  818,  821,  829, 
830,  831,  832,  834,  846,  847. 


146 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


Great  Central  Plain  of  North  Amer- 
ica, 49,  64,  266,  267,  374. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  97,  277,  465. 

Greece,  natural  features,  748;  his- 
torj-,  749;  exports,  750;  people, 
751;  government  and  religion,  752; 
cities,  753. 

Greek  church,  684,  752,  754. 

Greenland,  5o(n),  67,  94,  281,  28i(n), 
312. 

Green  Mountains,  347. 

Grindstones,  570. 

Grouse,  179. 

Guanaco,  631. 

Guano,  640,  642. 

Guaymas,  593. 

Gulch,  66. 

Gulfs,  74,  76,  109;  of  Asia,  648,  649; 
of  Europe,  697. 

Gulf-Stream,  how  formed,  157; 
description,  158. 

Guiana,  633,  646. 

Gum-copal,  820. 

Gums,  781,  810,  816. 

Gutta-percha,  801,  839. 

Gypsum,  437,  570,  578. 

Hail,  148. 

Haiti,  606. 

Hamburg,  719. 

Hamilton,  579. 

Hammerfest,  699,  706. 

Harbors,  343,  356,  364,  554,  570,  604, 
724,  747,  770. 

Hardware,  349,  715. 

Hare,  179. 

Hartford,  349,  368. 

Havana,  604. 

Hawaii,  845. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  844,  845. 

Hay,  339,  35 1>  386. 

Head-hunting,  842(n). 

Hecla,  Mount,  3i3(n). 

Heat,  effect  on  rock,  37;  source  of, 
no;  luminous,  no,  in;  dark,  no, 
ni;  radiation  of,  112,  114;  un- 
equally distributed,  117,  118;  iso- 
thermal lines,  128. 

Height  of  Land,  261,  269,  389. 

Helena,  473. 

Hemispheres,  our  hemisphere,  i; 
boundary  of  our  hemisphere,  5; 
Eastern  and  Western,  6;  land  and 
water,  7;  Northern  and  Southern, 
8;  our  antipodal  hemisphere,  10. 

Hemp,  407,  410,  680,  826,  843. 

Herculaneum,  740. 

Herring,  184,  712. 

Hickory,  408,  5i5(n). 

Hides,  332,  378,  524,  632,  638,  643, 
812,  813. 

Highlands,  of  North  America,  255- 
261;  of  Mexico,  581;  of  South 
America,  610-613;  of  Eurasia, 
649-655;  of  Africa,  787,  788;  of 
Australia,  829. 

Himalayas,  52,  651,  669. 

Hindoo  Koosh  Mountains,  651. 

Hindoos,  773. 

Hippopotamus,  802. 

Hogs,  378,  386,  390,  525,  744,  756. 

Holland,  50(n).  [See  "Nether- 
lands."] 

Honey,  535. 

Honolulu,  845. 

Hooker,  Mount,  274. 

Hops,  351,  482. 

Horns,  524,  632. 

Horses,  347,  4io,  520,  525,  589,  712, 
767. 

House  of  Commons,  711. 

House  of  Lords,  711. 

Hudson  Bay,  28i(n),  282. 

Humboldt  River,  464. 

Hungary,  729,  730,  731. 

Hunting,  237. 

Hurricanes,  146. 

Ibis,  802. 
Icebergs,  94. 

Iceland,  origin,  282;  general  descrip- 
tion, 313. 
Idaho,  448,  461,  472. 
Illinois,  375,  386,  394. 


Imports,  of  United  States,  332;  of 
England,  712. 

India,  668;  extent,  768;  government, 
769;  physical  features,  770;  prod- 
ucts, 771;  Ceylon,  772;  inhabit- 
ants, 773;  education,  774. 

Indiana,  375,  385,  402. 

Indianapolis,  402. 

Indians,  296,  302,  412,  456,  468,  578, 
590.  597,  638,  646. 

Indian  Territory,  328,  406,  412. 

India-rubber,  332,  588,  630,  636,  639, 
641,  820,  839. 

Indigo,  596,  630,  646,  771,  777,  839. 

Indo-China,  extent,  768;  government, 
769;  people,  776;  products,  777. 

Insects,  629. 

Inyo  County,  531. 

Iowa,  375,  390. 

Ireland,  714. 

Irish  moss,  175. 

Irkutsk,  690. 

Iron,  330,  332,  342,  352,  359,  360,  361, 
370,  388.  396,  397,  401,  402,  407, 
411,  425,  432,  434,  437,  446,  454, 
462,  466,  484,  519,  549,  569,  679, 
680,  703,  707,  712,  715,  718,  723, 
734,  763,  771,  803,  812,  839. 

Iron  ships,  354,  372. 

Irrigation,    45o(n),     465,    467,    529, 

531- 

Islands,  continental,  73(n);  oceanic, 
73(n) ;  diflFer  from  continents,  how, 
67;  arrangement  of,  70;  elevation 
of,  71;  volcanic,  72;  plants  and  ani- 
mals of,  73;  of  the  Atlantic  Plain, 
315,  421;  of  the  Gulf  Slope,  422; 
of  western  Canada,  558;  of  Asia, 
648,  649,  653;  of  Europe,  697;  of 
Norway,  702;  of  Sweden,  703. 

Isothermal  lines,  128. 

Isothermal  tropics,  128;  change  their 
positions,  129. 

Italians,  643,  645. 

Italy,  climate,  699;  area  and  popula- 
tion,   738;    products,    739;  cities, 

740- 
Ivory,  810,  816. 

Jackals,  802. 

Jaguars,  629. 

Jamaica,  282,  605. 

Japan,  653;  physical  features,  779; 
climate,  780;  products,  781;  ex- 
ports, 782;  government,  783; 
people,  784;  cities,  785. 

Japan  Current,  161,  320,  505,  508. 

Japanese,  213,  784. 

Japan  Sea,  109. 

Java,  71,  840. 

Jersey  City,  358. 

Jerusalem,  759. 

Jewelry,  371,  724,  726,  734. 

Jews,  812. 

JoruUo,  Mount,  582. 

Judaism,  230,  233. 

Jungles,  65. 

Jute,  771. 

Kamchatka,  653. 
Kanakas,  845. 
Kangaroos,  829. 
Kansas,  375,  391. 
Kansas  City,  415. 
Karakorum  Mountains,  651. 
Kardofan,  811. 
Keakhte,  683. 
Kenia,  Mount,  795. 
Kentucky,  406,  410,  416. 
Kermes,  750. 
Kern  County,  530,  531. 
Kerosene,  227. 
Key  West,  445- 
Khartum,  8n. 
Kidderminster,  715. 
Kiev,  690. 
Kilauea,  845. 

Kilima  Njaro,  Mount,  795. 
Khing-Gan  Mountains,  653. 
Kingston,  579. 
Klamath  River,  494. 
Kooril  Islands,  653. 
Kremlin,  688,  688(n). 
Kuen  Lun  Mountains,  651. 


Labrador,  578. 
Labrador  Current,  160. 
Laces,  724. 
Lahontan  Lake,  277. 
Lake-basins,  origin,  91,  loi. 
Lake  County,  536. 

Lakes,  glacial,  91,  93(n);  definition, 
95;  outlets,  96;  steppe  lakes,  97; 
fresh  become  salt,  99;  salt  become 
fresh,  100;  crater  lakes,  102;  salt 
lakes,  105  (n);  lakes  as  settlers, 
89(n),  276(n);  the  lakes  of  North 
America,  275;  the  Great  Lakes, 
276,  565;  of  Maine,  345;  of  New 
York,  351;  of  Wisconsin,  388;  of 
Minnesota,  389;  of  northeastern 
California,  496;  of  eastern  Canada, 
557;  of  western  Canada,  558;  of 
South  America,  620;  of  Eurasia, 
664,  666;  of  Norway,  702;  of  Swe- 
den, 703;  of  British  Isles,  708;  of 
Africa,  793,  794. 

Lama,  631. 

Language,  572,  572(n).  59°.  634,  723. 
726,  745. 

Lapland,  699,  704. 

Lassen  County,  532. 

Lateral  pressure,  48(n). 

Latin  race,  700. 

Laurentian  Mountains,  261. 

Lawrence,  366. 

Lead,  386,  388,  391,  4n,  454,  463,  679, 

.    712,  718,  734,  803,  812,  839. 

Lead  pencils,  358,  433. 

Leadville,  476. 

Leather,  330,  359,  378,  384,  535,  579, 
642,  680,  812. 

Leather  goods,  348. 

Leeches,  758. 

Lemons,  526(n),  535,  607,  739,  821. 

Leopard,  802. 

Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University, 
542. 

Lesser  Antilles,  608. 

Liberia,  816. 

Lichens,  170,  677. 

Lick  Observatory,  540. 

Lighting,  226,  227. 

Lime,  535. 

Linen,  332,  371,  680,  715. 

Lions,  671,  802. 

Lisbon,  747. 

Little  Rock,  447. 

Liu  Chiu  Islands,  653. 

Liverpool,  356,  715. 

Live-stock,  362,  382,  533,  647,  71S. 

Llanos,  65,  171. 

Locomotives,  354. 

Lombardy,  699,  739. 

London,  Canada,  579. 

London,  Eng.,  356,  707,  715. 

Longs  Peak,  274. 

Los  Angeles,  551. 

Los  Angeles  County,  531,  535. 

Los  Angeles  River,  499. 

Louisiana,  419,  436,  439. 

Louisville,  416. 

Lowell,  366. 

Lower  Novgorod,  682. 

Lowlands,  of  North  America,  264- 
266;  of  South  America,  614,  615; 
of  Eurasia,  656-658;  of  Europe, 
698;  of  Denmark,  705;  of  Holland, 
720;  of  China,  762;  of  Africa,  790. 

Lumber,  362,  365,  387,  388,  442,  443, 
444,  446,  482,  485,  486,  533,  534, 
535,  549,  579- 

Lumbering,  308,  329,  389,  485,  569, 

572,  573,  577- 
Lynn,  366. 
Lyons,  737. 

Machinery,  330,  368,  427,  549. 
Mackenzie  River,  267,  274. 
Mackenzie  River  Basin,  267. 
Mackerel,  184,  712. 
Madagascar,  820. 
Madeira,  821. 
Madera  County,  529. 
Madrid,  747. 
Madrona,  5i5(n). 
Magdalena  River,  618,  638. 
Mahogany,  588. 
Maine,  338,  345.  363. 


Malachite,  679,  680. 

Malaga,  744. 

Malay,  204,  776. 

Malays,  833,  838,  845. 

Malaysia,  subdivisions,  834;  phys- 
ical features,  835;  climate,  836; 
plants  and  animals,  837;  popula- 
tion, 838;  products,  839.  [For  in- 
dividual islands  and  groups  of 
islands,  see  their  names.] 

Manchester,  N.  H.,  364. 

Manchester,  Eng.,  715. 

Manchooria,  767. 

Mangoes,  763. 

Mankind,  grades  of  development, 
190;  savages,  191;  barbarians, 
192;  civilized  man,  193;  first  tools, 
197;  knowledge  of,  how  gained, 
198,  199;  drift  men,  198,  201, 
20i(n);  cave  men,  199,  201;  prog- 
ress, how  seen,  200;  origin,  203(n); 
classification  of  races,  203,  204, 
205;  white  tj'pe,  206-209,  672,  806; 
yellow  type,  210,  211,  212,  213, 
672,  828,  831;  black  tj'pe,  214,  215, 
216,  806,  828,  832,  843;  first  dwell- 
ings of,  217-219;  food  of,  224; 
cooking  of,  224;  clothing  of,  225, 
677;  lighting  for,  226,  227;  religion 
of,  228-236;  occupations,  237-242; 
government  of,  244-252. 

Manilla,  843. 

Manioc,  630. 

Manitoba,  563,  574. 

Manufactures,  239;  in  North  Amer- 
ica, 305;  in  the'United  States,  329; 
of  the  Northeastern  States,  341;  of 
Maine,  345 ;  of  Massachusetts,  348; 
of  Connecticut,  349;  of  Rhode 
Island,  350;  of  New  York,  351;  of 
Pennsylvania,  352;  of  New  Jersey, 
353!  of  Delaware,  354;  of  Brooklyn, 
357;  of  Jersey  City,  358;  of  Boston, 
359;  of  Philadelphia,  360;  of 
Buffalo,  362;  of  Manchester  and 
Nashua,  364;  of  Lowell,  Law- 
rence, and  Fall  River,  366;  of 
Worcester,  366;  of  Lynn,  366; 
of  Hartford,  368;  of  Waterburj-, 
368;  of  Rochester  and  Oswego, 
369;  of  Pittsburg,  370;  of  Trenton, 
Newark,  and  Patterson,  371;  of 
the  North  Central  States,  378;  of 
Ohio,  384;  of  Chicago,  394;  of 
Omaha,  400;  of  Wheeling,  401;  of 
Indianapolis,402;  of  Grand  Rapids, 
403;  of  Racine,  404;  of  Virginia, 409; 
of  Missouri,  411;  of  St.  Louis,  414; 
of  Louisville,  416;  of  St.  Joseph, 
418;  of  the  Southern  States,  427; 
of  Georgia,  432;  of  Alabama,  434; 
of  Atlanta,  440;  of  San  Francisco, 
549;  of  Oakland,  550;  of  Sacra- 
mento, 552;  of  Stockton,  555;  of 
Ontario,  573;  of  Quebec  City,  579; 
of  Ottawa,  579;  of  British  Isles, 
707;  of  England,  712;  of  Scotland, 
713;  of  Manchester,  715;  of  Ger- 
many, 717,  718;  of  Brussels,  724; 
of  Geneva,  726;  of  Vienna,  731; 
of  France,  734;  of  Lyons,  737. 
Manzanita,  5i5(n). 
Maoris,  831. 
Maple  sugar,  347. 
Mapping,  15,  21,  27,  30. 
Maracaybo  Lake,  620. 
Marble,  187,  342,  347,  432,  519,  531, 

739- 
Marin  County,  534. 
Marseilles,  737. 
Marshes,  46,  315. 
Martinique,  608. 
Martens,  178. 

Maryland,  338,  355,  361,  373. 
Massachusetts,  338,  341,  348,  359,  366. 
Mauna  Loa,  Mount,  843. 
Meats,  712. 
Meerschaum,  758. 
Melanesia,  832. 
Melbourne,  829. 
Melville  Sound,  28i(n). 
Memphis,  417. 
Mercurj-,  586,  839. 
Mesopotamia,  45o(n). 


INDEX, 


147 


Mexico,  volcanoes,  262;  rainfall,  286; 
physical  features,  580-583;  climate, 
584,  585;  resources,  586-589;  peo- 
ple, 590;  government  and  religion, 
591;  cities,  592,  593. 

Mexico  City,  592. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  76,  266,  282,  2S6. 

Mezquel,  587. 

Micronesia,  833. 

Michigan,  375,  387.  396,  403. 

Middle  Belt  States,  406;  surface  and 
resources,  407;  forests,  408;  States 
and  Territories,  409-413;  cities, 
414-418. 

Millet,  801. 

Milwaukee,  397. 

Minerals,  238,  319,  331,  352,  462,  411, 
531,  632,  641,  679,  734,  738,  743, 
754.  803.  [See  also,  particular 
minerals,  as  "Coal,"  "Iron," 
"Lead,"  "Gold,"  etc.] 

Mining,  239;  in  North  America,  307; 
in  United  States,  329,  329(n);  in 
Plateau  States,  455;  in  Utah,  465; 
in  Colorado,  466;  in  Leadville, 
476;  in  Tombstone,  477;  in  Cali- 
fornia, 527;  in  Mexico,  586;  in 
South  America,  632;  in  South 
Africa,  818;  in  Malaysia,  838. 
[See  also,  "Minerals."] 

Ministry  of  England,  711. 

Minneapolis,  399. 

Minnesota,  375,  389,  398,  399,  405. 

Mississippi,  419,  435. 

Mississippi  Basin,  268,  316,  317,  318. 

Mississippi  River,  318,  3i8(u). 

Missouri,  406,  411,  414,  415,  418. 

Missouri  River,  274. 

Mitchell,  Mount,  430. 

Mobile,  446. 

Modoc  County,  532. 

Mohammedanism,  230,  235,  810,  812, 
838. 

Mohave  River,  501. 

Moisture,  151,  669. 

Mollusks,  181,  182. 

Money,  241. 

Mongolians,  204,  700,  776,  784. 

Monkeys,  176,  629. 

Mono  County,  531. 

Monongahela  River,  370. 

Monsoons,  143,  669. 

Montana,  448,  462,  473. 

Montenegro,  754,  756. 

Monterey  County,  535. 

Montevideo,  645. 

Montreal,  579. 

Monuments,  737. 

Moors,  812. 

Moose,  564. 

Moraine,  90,  91. 

Mormons,  470. 

Morocco,  812. 

Moscow,  688. 

Mosses,  170. 

Mountains,  how  ranges  are  produced, 
50,  58;  position  of  ranges,  50,  51, 
74,  75;  age  of,  51,  316;  ranges  de- 
fined, 61;  crest,  61;  trend,  61; 
peak,  6i;  sierra,  61;  mountain- 
system,  62;  effect  on  moisture, 
151,  286;  of  North  America,  255- 
262;  of  Mexico,  582;  of  Central 
America,  594;  of  Eurasia,  648, 
651,  653,  654,  655,  679,  698;  of 
British  Isles,  708;  of  Africa,  787, 
788,  798;  island  extensions  of,  823; 
of  New  Zealand,  831;  of  Malaysia, 
835.  [For  particular  mountains  or 
mountain-ranges,  see  their  names.  ] 

Mulberry,  763,  781. 

Murray  River,  829. 

Musical  instruments,  731. 

Musk  ox,  178. 

Mutton,  643,  772(n),  829,  831. 

Nandu,  629. 

Napa  County,  534. 

Naples,  740. 

Nashua,  364. 

Nashville,  417. 

Natural-gas,  342,  35?,  370,  519,  535, 

555- 
Naval  stores,  427,  442,  443. 


Nebraska,  375,  391,  400. 

Negritos,  843. 

Negroes,  597,  603,  605,  606,  633,  636, 
646. 

Netherlands,  physical  features,  720; 
population,  720;  commerce,  721; 
cities,  722;  possessions  of,  S32,  834 

Nevada,  448,  464,  475. 

Newark,  371. 

New  Bedford,  366. 

New  Brunswick,  570. 

Newcastle,  715. 

New  England  States,  338. 

Newfoundland,  282,  578. 

New  Guinea,  832. 

New  Hampshire,  338,  341,  346,  364. 

New  Haven,  368. 

New  Jersey,  338,  353,  358,  371. 

New  Mexico,  328,  448,  468,  478. 

New  Orleans,  334,  439. 

New  South  Wales,  829. 

Newspapers,  707. 

Newport,  367. 

New  York  Bay,  356. 

New  York  City,  28i(n),  334,  353,  356. 

New  York  (State),  338,  348,  353,  356, 
357.  362,  369. 

New  Zealand,  831. 

N'gami  Lake,  794. 

Niagara  River,  351. 

Nickel,  573. 

Nile  River,  810. 

Nineveh,  759. 

Nubia,  811. 

Nuts,  526(n). 

Normal  schools,  3S1,  484,  485,  541. 

Normans,  710. 

North  America,  68. 

North  America,  Physical  —  Struc- 
ture, 253;  area,  254;  highlands, 
255-262;  lowlands,  264-266;  drain- 
age, 267-277;  oceans,  278;  coast- 
lines, 280-282;  climate,  283-287; 
productions,  288-290;  inhabitants, 
288-290;  development,  291-293. 

North  America,  Political — Aborig- 
ines, 294-297;  present  population, 
299-301;  religion,  302,  303;  indus- 
tries, 304-310;  political  divisions, 
311.  [For  further  reference, 
see  "Canada,"  "United  States," 
"Mexico,"  "Central  America," 
and   "West  Indies."] 

North  Atlantic  Current,  162. 

North  Carolina,  430,  442. 

North  Central  States,  375;  surface, 
376;  climate,  377;  manufactures, 
378;  commerce,  379;  shipping  fa- 
cilities, 380;  education,  381;  States, 
382-;-393;  cities,  394-405.  [For  in- 
dividual States  and  cities,  see 
their  names.] 

North  Dakota,  375,  392. 

Northeastern  States,  338;  surface 
and  soil,  339;  climate,  340;  manu- 
factures, 341;  mining,  342;  com- 
merce, 343;  education,  344;  States, 
3457355;  cities,  356-373-  [For  in- 
dividual States  and  cities,  see  their 
names.] 

North  Pacific  Current,  162. 

Nova  Scotia,  282,  560,  569. 

North  Temperate  Zone,  140. 

Norway,  702. 

Oakland,  544,  548,  549. 

Oaks,  172,  408,  5i5(n),  744.  75°- 

Oases,  798. 

Oats,  339,  386,  411,  412,  484,  714,  763. 

Ocean-Currents,  causes,  154,  156; 
effect  on  climate,  155;  Equatorial, 
156;  South  Equatorial,  157,  623; 
Brazilian,  157;  Gulf-Stream,  157, 
158;  cold,  159;  Labrador,  160; 
Japan,  161,  320,  505,  508;  change- 
able, 162;  Peruvian,  623. 

Oceania,  subdivisions,  822;  physical 
formation,  823;  coral  reefs,  824; 
climate,  825;  vegetation,  826;  ani- 
mals, 827;  native  inhabitants,  828; 
Australasia,  829-833;  Malaysia, 
834-843;  Polynesia,  844-848.  [See 
further,  "Australasia,"  "Malay- 
sia," and  "Polynesia."] 


Oceans,  elevation  of  bed,  71;  surface 
of  bed,  106;  slope  of  bed,  107; 
extent,  104;  why  salt,  105;  pro- 
portion of  salt,  io5(n);  shore-line, 
108;  currents,  154-162,  320,  505, 
508,  623;  Arctic,  266,  278,  279, 
281  (n);  Atlantic,  278;  Pacific,  278. 

Occupations,  development  of,  237; 
agriculture,  237;  manufactures, 
238,  239;  mining,  239;  commerce, 
240;  transportation,  242;  how  de- 
termined, 243;  of  North  America, 
304-310;  of  the  United  States,  329; 
of  Maine,  345;  of  Rhode  Island, 
350;  of  the  North  Central  States, 
378;  of  Minnesota,  389;  of  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  391;  of  North  Da- 
kota, 392;  of  South  Dakota,  393; 
of  the  Southern  States,  425;  of 
Texas,  438;  of  the  Plateau  States, 
455;  of  the  Pacific  States,  482;  of 
Quebec,  572;  of  Ontario,  573;  of 
British  Columbia,  577;  of  Russia, 
677,  678;  of  Norway,  702;  of  Lap- 
land, 704;  of  England,  712;  of 
Scotland,  713;  of  Ireland,  714;  of 
Switzerland,  726;  of  Austria,  730; 
of  Vienna,  731;  of  Roumania,  Ser- 
via,  Bulgaria,  and  Montenegro, 
754;  of  South  Africa,  818;  of  Aus- 
stralia,  829;  of  Tasmania,  830;  of 
New  Zealand,  831;  of  Malaysia, 
838.  [For  further  reference,  see 
"Agriculture, "  "  Manufactures, ' ' 
"Mining,"  "Commerce,"  "Stock- 
raising,"  "Lumbering,"  and 
"  Fishing."] 

Odessa,  683. 

Ogden,  471. 

Ohio,  375,  384,  395. 

Ohio  River,  370. 

Oil  City,  370. 

Oklahoma,  328,  406,  413. 

Olives,  535,  739,  744.  753- 

Omaha,  400. 

Omsk,  690. 

Ontario,  559,  573. 

Opium,  758,  771. 

Oporto,  744. 

Orange  County,  535. 

Orange  Free  State,  818. 

Oranges,  433.  526(n),  528,  535,  607, 
644,  739.  744,  753.  763.  821,  826,  848. 

Orang  outang,  837. 

Orchard  fruits,  339,  354,  526. 

Orchards,  528,  533,  744. 

Oregon,  448,  485,  486,  489. 

Organic  matter,  163. 

Orinoco  River,  625. 

Orizaba,  284. 

Ostrich  feathers,  810,  816. 

Oswego,  369. 

Ottawa,  579. 

Otter,  178. 

Oysters,  182,  355,  361,  409,  571. 

Pacific  Coast  of  North  America,  280, 

287. 
Pacific  Coast  States,    479;   surface, 

480;  climate,  481;  industries,  482; 

education,  483;    States,  484,  485; 

cities,  486-489. 
Pacific  Highland  of  North  America, 

25s.  255(n),  258(n),  26i(n),  319. 
Pacific  Ocean,  278. 
Pagans,  229,  302. 
Paintings,  724. 
Palestine,  757,  759. 
Palms,  801. 
Pameer  Plateau,  651. 
Panthers,  837. 
Papuans,  218,  832. 
Paraguay,  644. 
Paraguay  tea,  630,  644. 
Paris,  737. 
Parks,  737. 

Parliament  of  England,  711. 
Pass,  66. 

Pasturage,  532,  537,  647. 
Patagonia,  626. 
Patras,  753. 
Patterson,  371. 
Peace  River,  274. 
Peaches,  354,  355.  387.  560. 


Peaks,  255,  582. 

Peanuts,  630. 

Pearl-diving,  838. 

Pearls,  832. 

Peat,  185,  708. 

Peking,  766. 

Penguin,  629. 

Peninsulas,  definition,  76;  of  Bering 
Sea,  280;  of  Atlantic  coast,  282, 
315;  of  Eurasia,  648,  649;  of  Scan- 
dinavia, 655;  Iberian,  741. 

Pennsylvania,  338,  352,  360,  370. 

Pepper,  587,  630. 

Periwinkles,  182. 

Persia,  45o(n),  669;  physical  feat- 
ures, 691;  inhabitants,  692;  ex- 
ports, 692;  education,  692; 
government,  693;  cities,  694. 

Peru,  640. 

Peruvian  bark,  630,  638,  639. 

Petroleum,  331,  342,  352,  360,  370, 
519.  530,  573.  678. 

Philadelphia,  281  (n),  334,  353,  360. 

Philippine  Islands,  653,  834,  843. 

Philippopolis,  756. 

Phoenix,  477. 

Pikes  Peak,  274. 

Pile  houses,  217,  2i7(n). 

Pine,  169,  172,  408,  424,  514,  829. 

Pineapples,  607,  848. 

Pittsburg,  370. 

Plains,  alluvial,  41;  how  formed,  49; 
definition,  64;  Great  Central  Plain 
of  North  America,  49,  64,  266; 
character  of,  64,  66;  kinds  of,  65; 
Atlantic,  264;  of  South  America, 
614;  of  the  Orinoco,  614;  of  the 
Amazon,  614;  of  the  La  Plata, 
614;  of  Eurasia,  648;  of  Hindoo- 
stan,  669;  of  Hungary,  729,  730; 
of  Roumania,  755;  of  China,  762; 
of  Mongolia,  767;  of  East  Turke- 
stan, 767. 

Plants,  how  live,  164,  165;  where 
most  abundant,  167;  where  least 
abundant,  166;  abundance  de- 
pends on  what,  168;  character 
depends  on  what,  168;  of  the 
tropics,  168;  of  Temperate  Zones, 
169;  of  Frigid  Zones,  170;  distri- 
bution of  kinds,  172,  173;  causes 
of  distribution,  173,  174;  nature 
changed,  I74{n);  oceanic  plants, 
175;  form  peat,  185;  form  coal, 
186;  form  polishing  earths,  i86(n). 

Plateaus,  Mexican,  63,  255,  272,  286, 
581;  Rocky  Mountain,  259,  271,  272, 
319;  Arctic  Achipelago,  281,  28i(n); 
of  Greenland,  281;  of  Central 
America,  594;  of  Quito,  611,  628; 
of  Bolivia,  611,  619;  of  Brazil  and 
Guiana,  613;  of  Eurasia,  648,  649, 
651,  652,  653;  of  Arabia,  666,  695; 
of  Persia,  666,  691;  of  Spain,  741; 
of  Tibet,  767;  of  India,  770;  of 
Africa,  786,  787;  of  Australia,  829. 

Plate  glass,  734. 

Platinum,  679. 

Platte  River,  274. 

Poi,  845. 

Polishing  earths,  l86(n),  519. 

Political  parties  in  England,  711. 

Polynesia,  844-848.  [For  individual 
islands  and  groups  of  islands,  see 
their  names.] 

Polyps,  181. 

Pompeii,  740. 

Pope,  740. 

Poplar,  170,  172,  408. 

Popocatapetl,  284,  582. 

Population,  Greenland,  312;  United 
States,  324;  Northeastern  States 
(table,  page  58);  Rhode  Island, 
350;  New  York,  351;  North  Cen- 
tral States  (table,  page  62);  Chi- 
cago, 394;  Middle  Belt  States 
(table,  page  64);  St.  Louis,  414; 
Southern  States  (table,  page  65); 
Plateau  States  (table,  page  71), 
456;  Pacific  Coast  States  (table, 
page  74);  Seattle,  487;  Tacoma, 
487;  California  cities,  548;  Fresno, 
556;  province  of  Quebec,  572; 
Montreal,     579;    Winnipeg,    579; 


148 


ADVANCED    GEOGRAPHY. 


Victoria,  579;  Mexico,  590;  Cuba, 
604;  Puerto  Rico,  604;  Jamaica, 
605;  Haiti,  606;  Barbadoes,  608; 
Russian  Empire,  684;  St.  Peters- 
burg, 687;  Persia,  692;  Christiania, 
Stockholm,  Copenhagen,  Ham- 
merfest,  706;  London,  715;  Glas- 
gow, 715;  Dublin,  715;  German 
Empire,  716;  Dutch  Colonies, 
721;  Belgium,  723;  Switzerland, 
726;  Vienna,  731;  Fezzan,  798; 
Africa,  805;  Egypt,  810;  Soudan, 
814;  Australia,  829;  Tasmania, 
830;  Malaysia,  838;  Java,  840; 
Honolulu,  845. 

Porcelain,  731,  734,  764. 

Pork,  386,  400,  415,  772(n). 

Portland,  Me.,  363. 

Portland,  Or.,  486. 

Port  Said,  810. 

Portsmouth,  364. 

Portugal,  634,  635,  741-747.  816. 

Portuguese  possessions,  747(n). 

Potash,  680. 

Potatoes,  339,  386,  410,  432,  465,  533, 

535.  571.  630.  7M. 
Pottery,  353,  371,  550,  810. 
Pottsville,  370. 
Poultry,  802. 
Powder,  354. 
Prairie,  65,  171,  376. 
Prince  Edward  Island,  560,  571. 
Printing,  359. 
Provisions,  331,  402. 
Prunes,  526(n),  534,  733,  758. 
Puerto  Rico,  604. 
Puget  Sound,  265(n). 
Pulque,  587. 
Puma,  629. 
Punta  Arenas,  647. 
Pyrenees,  52. 

Quebec,  572. 
Quebec  City,  579. 
Queensland,  829. 
Queenstown,  715. 
Quicksilver,  518,  730,  743. 
Quito,  639. 

Races,  202-216,  288,  289,  290,  578, 
67.7.  678,  700.  745,  754,  757. 

Racine,  404. 

Radiation,  112,  114,  115,  116. 

Railroad  cars,  354. 

Railroads,  333,  380,  548,  551,  553,  728, 
810,  812,  829. 

Rain,  148,  149. 

Rainfall,  in  North  America,  286;  in 
United  States,  321;  in  Plateau 
States,  450,  451;  in  California,  507; 
unequal,  510;  in  plateau  counties 
of  California,  532;  in  Mexico,  2S6, 
584;  in  the  Andes,  624;  in  Chile, 
626;  in  Argentine,  626;  in  the  La 
Plata  Basin,  627;  in  Europe,  669; 
on  Eurasian  Plain,  669;  on  the 
Ghauts  and  Himalayas,  669;  in 
Hindoostan,  669;  in  Arabia,  695; 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  742;  in 
Africa,  796,  797,  799;  in  Oceania, 
825;  in  Australia,  829. 

Raisins,  526(n),  529,   535,   556,   739, 

744- 

Rape,  843. 

Red  River  of  the  North,  317,  565. 

Reindeer,  178. 

Religion,  universal,  228;  pagan,  229; 
of  civilization,  230;  Brahminism, 
231;  Buddhism,  232;  Judaism,  233; 
Christianity,  234;  Mahommedan- 
ism,  235;  influence  of,  236;  of 
North  America,  302,  303;  Mor- 
mons, 470;  of  Mexico,  591;  of 
South  America,  635;  of  Russia, 
684;  of  Scandinavia,  701;  of 
France,  736;  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, 746;  of  Greece,  752;  of  Rou- 
mania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Mon- 
tenegro, 754;  of  Turkey,  757; 
origin  of,  759;  of  Africa,  806;  of 
Egypt,  810;  of  Barbary  States, 
812;  of  Abyssinia,  813;  of  Oceania, 
828;  of  Malaysia,  838;  of  Sand- 
wich Islands,  845. 


Resins,  781. 

Reptiles,  176,  177. 

Rhinoceros,  802,  837. 

Rhode  Island,  341,  350,  367. 

Rhone  River,  89(n). 

Rice,  425,  431,  432,  442,  443,  444, 
596,  646,  739,  763,  771,  772(n),  777, 
781,  801,  826,  839,  845. 

Right  whale,  184. 

Rio  Janeiro,  636. 

Rivers,  parts  of,  39;  channel,  40;  on 
narrow  coasts,  74;  on  wide  coasts, 
75;  delta,  42,  43,  66i,  662;  origin 
and  source,  77;  direction,  78;  sys- 
tems, 82,  83;  use  to  man,  85;  of  the 
United  States,  3i4(n);  of  the  At- 
lantic Plain,  315,  420;  of  Wiscon- 
sin, 388;  of  the  Gulf  Slope,  422; 
of  the  Plateau  States,  457;  of  Cali- 
fornia, 498-501;  of  western  Can- 
ada, 558;  of  Mexico,  583;  of  Arctic 
Slope,  Eurasia,  661;  of  Eastern 
and  Southern  Slopes,  Eurasia,  662; 
of  Western  Slope,  Eurasia,  663; 
of  Russia,  676;  of  Siberia,  676; 
of  Arabia,  695;  of  British  Isles, 
708;  of  France,  732;  of  Spain,  741; 
of  Greece,  748;  of  China,  762;  of 
Africa,  792;  of  Australia,  829. 

Roads,  728,  735. 

Robins,  179. 

Rochester,  369. 

Rock,  efiect  of  air  on,  37;  effect  of 
heat  on,  37;  effect  of  cold  on,  37; 
helps  erosion,  38;  stratified,  44, 
45.  47.  .48,  49.  50.  5o(n),  64,  292; 
unstratified,  292. 

Rocky  Mountains,  51,  62,  69,  255(n), 
256,  266,  274,  321,  600. 

Romans,  710. 

Rome,  740. 

Roses,  756. 

Rose-wood,  588,  772. 

Rosin,  430,  444. 

Rope,  558. 

Roumania,  754,  755. 

Rotterdam,  722. 

Rubber  goods,  371. 

Ruins,  740,  810. 

Rum,  605. 

Russian  Empire,  extent,  674;  posi- 
tion, 675;  surface  and  drainage, 
676;  products  and  people,  677, 678, 
679;  exports,  680;  domestic  com- 
merce, 681,  ^2;  foreign  commerce, 
683;  population,  government,  and 
religion,  684;  education,  685; 
standing  army,  686;  St.  Peters- 
burg, 687;  Moscow,  688;  Warsaw, 
689;  minor  cities,  690. 

Rye,  386,  410,  680. 

Sacramento,  552. 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valle5-, 

265Cn),  490-493- 
Sagebrush,  171. 
Sago,  839. 
Sahara,  798(n),  815. 
St.  Augustine,  445. 
St.  Helena,  821. 
St.  Joseph,  418. 
St.  Lawrence  Basin,  269. 
St.  Lawrence  Gulf,  282. 
St.  Lawrence  River,  565. 
St.  Louis,  414. 
St.  Paul,  398. 
St.  Peters,  740. 
St.  Petersburg,  687. 
Salmon,  484,  485,  489. 
Salt,  351,  369,  382,  387,  401,  436,  454, 

464,  519,  607,  678,  734. 
Salt  Lake  City,  470. 
Salton  Lake,  497. 
Saltpeter,  640. 
Samoan  Islands,  844,  846. 
San  Benito  County,  535. 
San  Bernardino  County,  531,  535. 
Sandal-wood,  839. 
Sand-bars,  75. 
San  Diego,  554. 
San  Diego  County,  531,  535. 
San  Domingo,  606. 
San  Francisco,  334,  549. 
San  Francisco  River,  618. 


San  ]os6,  553. 

San  Luis  Obispo  County,  535. 

San  Mateo  County,  534. 

Santa  Barbara  County,  535. 

Santa  Clara  County,  534,  543. 

Santa  Cruz  County,  535. 

Santa  Fe,  478. 

Santorin,  Mount,  654. 

Sarawak,  842. 

Sarsaparilla,  630. 

Saskatchewan,  563,  575. 

Saskatchewan  River,  274,  558,  565. 

Satin-wood,  772. 

Saturation,  148,  152 

Savages,  191. 

Savage  houses,  217,  2i7(n),  218. 

Savannah,  28i(n),  444. 

Saxons,  710. 

Scandinavians,  701,  710. 

Scotland,  713. 

Scranton,  370. 

Scutari,  758. 

Seal,  184,  479(1).  677. 

Seas,  regular  coast-lines  of,  74;  defi- 
nition, 109;  of  Eurasia,  648,  649; 
of  Europe,  697. 

Sea-shores  (or  coasts),  5oCn). 

Seasons,  120;  in  California,  506;  in 
South  America,  625;  in  northern 
Africa,  799;  in  southern  Africa, 
800. 

Seattle,  487. 

Secretary-bird,  802. 

Sediment,  36,  44,  75. 

Selvas,  65. 

Sequoia,  514. 

Servia,  754,  756. 

Seville,  744. 

Sewing-machines,  349. 

Shark,  184. 

Shasta  County,  532. 

Shasta,  Mount,  494. 

Shawls,  692,  731. 

Sheep,  347,  386,  484,  485,  520,  525, 
647.  712,  713,  758,  767,  802,  829. 

Sheffield,  715. 

Ship-building,  363,  569,  702. 

Siam,  769.  ' 

Siberia,  668,  675,  676. 

Sierra,  61. 

Sierra    Madre    Mountains,    2S5(n), 

259- 

Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  51,  52,  91, 
98,  255(n),  257,  259,  271. 

Silk,  371,  692,  737,  739,  764,  777,  782. 

Silk  manufactures,  332. 

Silk  velvets,  731. 

Silt,  36. 

Silver,  393,  400,  454,  461,  462,  463, 
464,  466,  467,  482,  517,  537,  573, 
586,  633,  641,  679,  829. 

Simoom,  798(n). 

Sisal,  588. 

Siskiyou  County,  532. 

Siskiyou  Mountains,  494. 

Slate,  342,  347,  519. 

Slaves,  806,  8q8,  809. 

Slavonic  race,  700. 

Slopes,  79,  267,  268,  270,  271,  314, 
317,  659,  660. 

Smith  River,  499. 

Smyrna,  759. 

Snake  River,  274. 

Snow,  148,  149;  in  Northeastern 
States,  340;  in  North  Central 
States,  377;  in  the  Andes,  628; 
in  Switzerland,  725;  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  742;  in  Greece,  748;  in 
China,  762;  in  Africa,  795;  in 
Oceania,  825;  in  Australia,  829. 

Snow  houses,  218. 

Snow  Mountains,  795. 

Soap,  550,  744- 

Soda,  519,  634. 

Sod  houses,  219. 

Solano  County,  534. 

Sonoma  County,  534,  546. 

Sophia,  756. 

Soudan,  814. 

Sounds,  280,  281. 

South  Africa,  818. 

South  America,  Physical — Compared 
with  North  America,  609;  pri- 
mary highland   system,    610-612; 


secondary  highland  system,  613; 
lowlands,  614,  615;  drainage,  616- 
620;  coast-lipe,  621,  622;  climate 
and  vegetation,  623-628;  animals, 
629. 

South  America,  Political — Vegetable 
resources,  630;  animal  resources, 
631;  occupations,  632;  minerals, 
633;  inhabitants,  634;  government, 
635;  religion,  635;  countries,  636- 
646;  islands,  647. 

South  Australia,  829. 

South  Carolina,  431,  443. 

South  Dakota,  393. 

Southern  States,  419;  surface,  420, 
421,  422;  drainage,  420;  soil,  420; 
coast,  421,  422;  climate,  423;  veg- 
etation, 424;  industries,  425; 
cotton,  426;  manufactures,  427; 
population,  428;  education,  429; 
States,  430-438;  cities,  439-447- 

South  Temperate  Zone,  140. 

Spain,  634,  635,  741-747;  possessions, 
747(n),  816,  834,  843. 

Spain  and  Portugal,  area  and  natural 
features,  741;  climate,  742;  min- 
erals, 743;  agriculture,  744;  inhab- 
itants, 745;  education  and  religion, 
746;  cities,  747. 

Sperm  whale,  184. 

Spanish  people,  323,  468,  590. 

Spice  Islands,  834,  841. 

Spices,  777,  826,  839. 

Spokane,  488. 

Sponges,  433,  445,  607,  758. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  366. 

Spruce,  170,  484,  514. 

Squirrels,  177,  179. 

Stanford  University,  542. 

Stanovoi  Mountains,  653. 

Steel,  330,  359,  360,  361,  370, 384, 397, 
414.  718. 

Steppes,  65,  658. 

Stock-raising,  306,  329,  385,  391,  392, 
412,  438,  460,  462,  474,  482,  529, 
531.  532,  534.  536,  632,  645,  714. 
730.  754,  812,  818,  829. 

Stockton,  543,  555. 

Stone,  342,  346,  347,  437,  579. 

Stromboli,  Mount,  654. 

Suez,  810. 

Suez  Canal,  810. 

Sugar,  332,  359,  414,  425,  427,  434, 
436.  438,  439.  587.  602,  630,  635, 
640,  646,   718,   730,   733,  801,  826, 

839.  845.  847. 

Suleiman  Mountains,  651. 

Sulphur,  519,  782. 

Sumatra,  71,  840. 

Summer  resorts,  345,  367, 

Sunda  Islands,  834,  840. 

Superior  Lake,  ico,  loi,  276. 

Surface,  varied  how,  59;  of  North- 
eastern States,  339;  of  Maine,  345; 
of  Massachusetts,  348;  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 352;  of  North  Central 
States,  376;  of  West  Virginia,  382; 
of  Middle  Belt  States,  407;  of  the 
Southern  States,  420;  of  the  Pla- 
teau States,  449,  460;  of  Nevada, 
464;  of  the  Pacific  States,  480;  of 
Europe,  698;  of  Sweden,  703;  of 
Austro-Hungary,  729;  of  France, 
732;  of  Servia,  756;  of  China,  762; 
of  Africa,  786.  [See  also,  "  High- 
lands" and  "Lowlands."] 

Surveying,  12;  meridian,  12;  par- 
allel, 12;  townships,  13;  starting 
point  of  in  California,  12;  sections, 
12,  13;  in  southern  and  north- 
western California,  14;  range,  ij; 
California  base-line,  12;  California 
meridian,  13. 

Swamps,  65. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  702,  703. 

Sweet  potatoes,  432,  845. 

Switzerland,  natural  features  and 
government,  725;  inhabitants  and 
occupations,  726;  education,  727; 
roads,  728. 

Sycamore,  408,  515(0)- 

Sydney,  829. 

Syracuse,  369. 

Syria,  45oin),  759. 


INDEX. 


149 


Tabreez,  694. 

Tacoma,  487. 

Tagus  River,  741. 

Tahiti,  848. 

Tahoe  Lake,  3(11). 

Tallow,  524,  632,  643. 

Tanbark,  533. 

Tanganyika  Lake,  793. 

Tapioca,  630. 

Tar,  430. 

Taro,  845. 

Tasmania,  830. 

Tea,  332,  763,  764,  771,  772,  785. 

Teak,  772,  839. 

Telegraph,  812. 

Temperate  Zones,  124,  140,  141,  145, 
169,  285. 

Temperature,  mean  daily,  127;  mean 
annual,  127;  in  Torrid  Zone  of 
North  America,  284;  in  Temperate 
Zone  of  North  America,  285, 
285(n);  in  Arizona,  467;  in  British 
Columbia,  561;  in  Mexico,  585;  in 
South  America,  628;  of  Siberia, 
568;  of  Arabia,  695;  in  Europe, 
699;  of  Cork  and  London,  709;  of 
Sahara,  798(n).  [See  also,  "Com- 
parative Temperature."] 

Tennessee,  410,  417. 

Terra  del  Fuego,  647. 

Teutonic  race,  700. 

Texas,  438,  441. 

Textiles,  332. 

Thian  Shan  Mountains,  651. 

Tibet,  767. 

Tigers,  671. 

Tiger  skins,  767. 

Timber,  529,  536. 

Timbuktu,  814. 

Tin,  332,  393,  454,  519,  707,  712,  777, 
830,  839. 

Titicaca  Lake,  620. 

Tinmen,  690. 

Tobacco,  331,  355,  361,  407,  409,  410, 
411,  414,  416,  430.  440,  445.  588, 
602,  630,  638,  839,  843,  845» 

Tobolsk,  690.  >» 

Tokyo,  785.  ^ 

Tombstone,  477. 

Tornadoes,  146,  377. 

Toronto,  579. 

Torrid  Zone,  122,  146,  170,  377. 

Trade-vfinds,  137,  153,  286,  624,  627. 

Transportation,  242. 

Transvaal,  8i8. 

Trenton,  371. 

Trepangs,  839. 

Trieste,  731. 

Trinity  County,  532. 

Tripoli,  757. 

Tucson,  477. 

Tulare  County,  529. 


Tulare  Lake,  97,  loi. 

Tule,  i86(n). 

Tundras,  65,  658. 

Tunis,  812. 

Turkestan,  678. 

Turkey,  extent,  757;  European,  758; 

Asiatic,    759;    influence    of,    810; 

provinces,  815. 
Turpentine,  430,  442,  443,  444. 
Typhoon,  146,  836. 

United  States — Physical,  314;  ex- 
tent, 314;  Atlantic  Plain,  315;  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  316;  pro- 
portion in  Great  Central  Plain,  317; 
Mississippi  Basin,  318;  proportion 
in  Pacific  Highland,  319;  Rocky 
Mountain  Plateau,  319;  Pacific 
Slope,  320;  Japan  Current,  320; 
rainfall,  329. 

United  States — Political,  322;  settle- 
ment, 323;  population,  324;  gov- 
ernment, 325;  District  of  Columbia; 
326;  territories,  328;  industries, 
329;  manufactures,  329,  330;  ex- 
ports, 331;  imports,  332;  railways, 
333;  commerce,  333,  334;  educa- 
tion, 335;  religion,  336;  subdivis- 
ions, 337;  Northeastern  States, 
338-373;  North  Central  States, 
374-405;  Middle  Belt  States,  406- 
418;  Southern  States,  419-447; 
Western  Plateau  States,  448-478; 
Pacific  Coast  States,  479-556. 

Universities  of  England,  712. 

University  of  California,  540. 

Ural  Mountains,  655,  679. 

Uruguay,  645. 

Utah  Basin,  49,  63,  272,  319. 

Valdai  Hills,  698. 

Valleys,  definition,  66;  how  formed, 
66;  kinds,  66;  of  the  San  Joaquin, 
265(n);  Willamette,  265(n),  485; 
of  the  Hudson,  351;  of  the  Mo- 
hawk, 351;  of  the  Genesee,  351; 
Death,  497;  of  the  Rhone,  732;  of 
the  Garonne,  733. 

Valparaiso,  642. 

Vancouver,  579. 

Vapor,  III,  112,  147;  invisible,  147, 
148;  visible,  148;  condensed,  149; 
distribution,  150. 

Vatican,  740. 

Vegetable  ivory,  630. 

Vegetation,  depends  on,  165;  effect 
on  of  rain  and  heat,  166;  where 
most  abundant,  167;  tropical,  168; 
of  Temperate  Zones,  169;  ever- 
greens, 168,  169;  deciduous  trees, 
169;  of  the  Frigid  Zone,  170;  of 
the    Southern    States,    424;      of 


Nevada,  464;  of  Russia,  677,  678; 
of  Arabia,  695;  of  Switzerland,  725; 
of  Oceania,  826;  of  Australia,  829; 
of  Malaysia,  837. 

Venezuela,  637. 

Ventura  County,  535. 

Vera  Cruz,  593. 

Vermont,  347,  365. 

Vesuvius,  Mount,  654,  740. 

Victoria,  B.  C,  579. 

Victoria,  Australia,  829. 

Vienna,  731. 

Vinej-ards,  526,  528,  744. 

Virgmia,  409. 

Virginia  City,  475. 

Vipers,  802. 

Vladivostok,  683. 

Volcanoes,  causes  and  description, 
54;  crater,  54,  582;  active,  55; 
eruptions,  55;  locality,  55;  extinct, 
56,  582;  of  Iceland,  262,  282,  313, 
3i3(n);  of  Mexico,  262,  582;  of 
California,  503;  of  the  Andes,  612; 
of  Eurasia,  654;  of  Japan,  779;  of 
Africa,  789;  of  Malaysia,  835;  of 
Sandwich  Islands,  845. 

Wagons,  378,  384. 

Wallabies,  829. 

Walla  Walla,  488. 

Walnut,  5i5(n). 

Wars,  806,  809,  813. 

Warsaw,  689. 

Washington,  D.  C,  327. 

Washington  (State),  479,  484,  487, 
488. 

Water,  104,  105,  115. 

Waterbury,  368. 

Water-shed,  79. 

Watling  Island,  607. 

Waydays,  695. 

Wellington,  831. 

West  Australia,  829. 

Western  Ghauts,  669. 

Western  Plateau  States,  surface,  449; 
productions,  450,  451;  climate,  451, 
452;  vegetation,  451,  453;  minerals, 
454;  industries,  455;  population, 
456;  transportation,  457;  educa- 
tion, 458;  scenery,  459;  States, 
460-468;  cities,  469-478. 

West  Indies,  volcanoes,  262;  rain- 
fall, 286;  physical  features,  600; 
climate,  601;  productions,  602; 
inhabitants,  603;  government,  604, 
605,  606;  cities,  604;  exports,  602, 
605,  607. 

West  Virginia,  382,  401. 

Whales,  i84(n);  right,  184;  sperm, 
184. 

Wheat,  351,  378,  386,  388,  389,  392, 
405,  410,  411,  438,  484,  485,  487, 


528,  549,  562,  574,  575,  639,  642, 
680,  712,  730,  763,  771. 

Wheeling,  401. 

Whisky,  416. 

White  Mountains,  346. 

White  type  (race),  locality,  207;  fair 
whites,  208;  dark  whites,  209,  672, 
806. 

Whitney,  Mount,  497. 

Wigwam,  218. 

Wilkesbarre,  370. 

Willamette  Valley,  265(n). 

Willow,  170. 

Wilmington,  Del.,  372. 

Wilmington,  N.  C,  442. 

Wind,  definition,  130;  causes,  134; 
currents,  135,  136,  139;  trade,  137, 
153,  286,  624,  627;  anti-trade,  140, 
153,  286,  626,  627;  variable,  141; 
of  the  Frigid  Zones,  142,  152; 
monsoons,  143,  669;  land  and  sea, 
144;  cyclone,  145;  tornado,  146; 
hurricanes,  146;  typhoon,  146;  of 
California,  505,  508;  of  British 
Columbia,  562;  of  Africa,  798(n), 

799- 
Wine,  526,  534,  535,  549,   553,   718, 

730.  733,  737.  744- 
Winnipeg,  579. 
Wire  cables,  549. 
Wisconsin,  388,  397,  404. 
Wolves,  177,  179,  677. 
Wombats,  829. 
Wool,   359,   378,   384,  468,   486,  525, 

533.  549,  643,  645,   680,  712,  744, 

758,  829. 
Woolen  goods,   330,  348,   350,    360, 

364,  366,  384,  713- 
Woolen  mills,  715. 
Worcester,  366. 
Wyoming,  463. 

Yakutsk,  690. 

Yams,  845. 

Yellow  Sea,  109. 

Yellowstone  River,  274. 

Yellow  type  (race),  characteristics, 
210;  number,  211;  locality,  212, 
672,  828,  832;  civilization  of,  213. 

Yokohama,  785. 

Yosemite,  87,  513. 

Yucatan,  282. 

Yukon  River,  272,  274. 

Zante,  753. 

Zanzibar,  819. 

Zebra,  802,  814. 

Zinc,  353,  388,  718. 

Zones,  Torrid,  122,  146;  Frigid,  123, 

142;  Temperate,  124,  140,  141,  145; 

mathematical,  125,  129;  heat,  126, 

128,  129. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 

University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
f/O  f*«ir642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days 

prior  to  due  date 

w 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


DEC  17 1991 


KB  17A-5m-3.'63 
(DSS08i]0)4i88B 


Genera]  Library 

UiUTersity  of  CaUfomia 

Berkeley 


YF  00714 


ivi249526 

-fG  \X'^ 

t'X'h 

tdloc. 

:^ji^-\. 

THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 

